Discoveries of James Cook

James Cook (born October 27 (November 7), 1728 - death February 14, 1779) was an English navy sailor, explorer, cartographer and discoverer, member of the Royal Society and captain of the Royal Navy. He led three round-the-world expeditions to explore the oceans.

The main events of the biography. Expeditions

1759 - 1760 - Explored and mapped the banks of the Canadian St. Lawrence River.

1763 - 1766 - Mapped the coast of Newfoundland.

1768 - 1771 - First Pacific expedition: explored Tahiti and the Community Islands. Mapped the coasts of New Zealand and eastern Australia.

1772 - 1775 - Second trip around the world: explored Tahiti and New Zealand, visited the Marquesas Islands, New Caledonia New Hebrides and other islands of Polynesia and Macranesia. For the first time in history, he crossed the Antarctic Circle. Explored South Georgia and South Sandwich.

1776 - 1780 - Third voyage around the world: search for the Northwest Passage from the western coast of the North American continent. Return to New Zealand and Tahiti. Visited the Hawaiian Islands.

Explored the west coast of America from Oregon to Point Barrow, Alaska.

1779 - In 1779 he was killed in a skirmish with the Hawaiians.

Whatever the opinion of the public on my voyage, I must, with a feeling of true satisfaction, demanding no other reward than the recognition that I have fulfilled my duty, finish ... the report as follows: the facts confirm that we have proved the possibility of maintaining the health of a large crew in long voyage, in different climatic conditions, with tireless work.

James Cook. "Journey to the South Pole and Around the World"

One of the most prominent figures in the history of discovery. A man of the Age of Enlightenment, James Cook was not only a discoverer and conqueror of new lands, who gains fame and fortune or opens up new ways of trade. Thanks to his voyages, he became authoritative in solving scientific issues.

Walter Kremer. "300 travelers"

James Cook is one of the most prominent English navigators. He was the leader of three round-the-world expeditions. He discovered many islands in the Pacific Ocean, the Great Barrier Reef and the east coast of Australia, found out the island location of New Zealand. He made attempts to find the southern mainland - Antarctica. A bay near the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska, a group of islands in Polynesia, a strait between both islands of New Zealand, etc. bear his name.

Childhood

1728, October 27 - in the poor family of a Yorkshire farmhand in the village of Marton, the ninth child was born, who later won the fame of the national hero of England and strengthened its influence in the Pacific region.

His life was not easy, full of tireless work and perseverance in achieving the goal. Already at the age of seven, the boy began working on the Airy-Golm farm, owned by the landowner Thomas Scottow. It was he who helped a capable child get an elementary education by placing James in a school at his own expense.

A few years later, in the seaside village of Stey, Cook entered the service of the grocery and haberdashery merchant William Sanders, who later claimed that even in his youth, the future traveler was distinguished by maturity of judgment and subtle calculation. Perhaps it was here, when he saw the sea for the first time, that Cook felt his true calling, because a year and a half later, much earlier than the expiration of the 4-year contract, he signed up as a student on the sailing ship "Free Love", which transported coal. Love for the "coal miners" remained with Cook until the end of his life. He considered these ships the most suitable for long-term voyages in uncharted waters.

First successes

1752 - smart and domineering Cook became the captain's assistant on the ship "Friendship". In this position, the beginning of the Seven Years' War found him, when his ship was in the port of London. After some hesitation, the young man signed up as a volunteer in the English navy, desiring, as he himself said, "to try his luck on this path." And it didn't let him down. Already 3 years later, in 1759, Cook received his first officer rank and sailed to Canada on the ship "Mercury", sent to conduct military operations on the river. Saint Lawrence. There he was able to distinguish himself by performing measurements in the fairway of the river at the risk of his life and drawing up an accurate map.

After the war ended, Cook focused on improving his education. Stubbornly, without anyone's help, he mastered geometry and astronomy, so much so that the depth of knowledge amazed his colleagues who studied in expensive special schools. He himself assessed his "scholarship" more modestly.

The further career of James Cook, thanks to his unparalleled diligence, intelligence and insight, continuously went up. 1762, September - participating in military operations against the French in Newfoundland, he made a detailed inventory of Placentia Bay and a topographical survey of its shores, examined the conditions of navigation between the island of Newfoundland and the Labrador Peninsula. The result of his labors were eight accurate maps of these places.

Pacific expedition

1768 - The British Admiralty organized a Pacific expedition to observe the passage of the planet Venus through the disk of the Sun to Tahiti. In addition to the official, other goals were also pursued: to prevent the seizure of new lands by other powers, to resume the creation of strongholds and bases in the region to establish British control here. Great importance was attached to the discovery of new rich lands, the development of trade in "colonial goods", including slaves. The most suitable candidate for the head of the expedition turned out to be James Cook, who was not yet widely known, but who had proven himself in professional circles.

The lieutenant personally chose a bark on the Thames (the three-masted ship "Endeavor" - "Attempt"), which left the mouth of the Thames on June 30, 1768, with a team of 84 people, and in January 1769, passing Madeira, Canary Islands, islands wa Cape Verde, has already rounded Cape Horn and entered the Pacific Ocean. Thus began the Pacific epic of James Cook, which immortalized his name and turned him into a legendary man.

On April 13, the expedition reached Tahiti, where on June 3, under excellent weather conditions, astronomical observations of Venus were made. From here, Cook turned west and rediscovered the Society Islands, so named after the Learned Society of London; then he went around New Zealand, finding out that it was a double island, which refuted the opinion of Tasman, who considered it part of the legendary Southern continent.

The next discoveries were the discovery of the previously unknown east coast of Australia, the Great Barrier Reef, the rediscovery of the Torres Strait. In the end, Cook's ships rounded the Cape of Good Hope and returned to England in 1771, completing a voyage that lasted 2 years and 9.5 months. Accurate maps of all surveyed areas were drawn up. Tahiti and the nearby islands were declared possessions of the English crown.

Second trip around the world

The second round-the-world trip, which lasted from 1772 to 1775, had an even greater resonance. They began to talk about Cook as a new Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan.

The task of the expedition was associated with the search for the southern mainland, which for several centuries has been unsuccessfully searched for by navigators. different countries. The Admiralty, greatly impressed by Cook's successes, assigned two ships to this difficult task.

For almost three years, the Resolution and Adventure, the new ships of James Cook, were sailing. Leaving Plymouth on June 13, 1772, he was the first of the round-the-world travelers to explore the entire previously unknown part of the Pacific Ocean between 60 ° and 70 ° S. latitude, at the same time twice crossed the Antarctic Circle and reached 70 ° 10? Yu. sh. Having discovered huge icebergs and ice fields, Cook became convinced that "the risk associated with sailing in these unexplored and ice-covered seas is so great that ... no person will ever dare to penetrate further south than I could" and that lands that "may lie in the South will never be explored."

Cook was wrong, and his mistake - the captain's authority was so great - slowed down the search for Antarctica for several decades. In the second voyage, Cook discovered the island of South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, about. Norfolk; he also continued research and measurement work.

Third trip around the world

Reconstruction of Endeavour

Cook rested for a year, having received a long vacation, and on July 12, 1776, he set off on his third and last trip. On the ships Resolution and Discovery, now with the rank of captain, he set sail in search of a trade route from the Pacific to the Atlantic around North America - the long-sought northwest passage.

In this expedition, the group of Hawaiian Islands, named after the then head of the Admiralty Sandwich Islands, was rediscovered, the still completely unknown northwestern coast of America, right up to Alaska, was mapped, the location of Asia and America relative to each other was clarified. In search of a northwest passage, the travelers reached 70°41? With. sh. at Cape Icy, where the ships were blocked by pack ice. The expedition turned south, and in November 1778 the crew landed again in the Hawaiian Islands.

Death of James Cook

It was there that the world-famous tragedy took place. The Hawaiians had an ancient legend about the god O-Rono, who should return to Hawaii on a floating island. The priest O-Rono declared Cook a god. The honors paid by the islanders were unpleasant to the navigator. However, believing that this would make the stay of the team in Hawaii safer, he did not dissuade the natives.

And in their midst, a complex struggle of interests between priests and warriors began. The divine origin of the captain was called into question. There was a desire to check it out. Theft in the expedition camp led to skirmishes with the natives. The situation escalated, and in one of the clashes, on February 14, 1779, James Cook was killed with a spear in the back of the head. The Hawaiians took the corpse with them, and the next day the priests - the captain's friends - weepingly brought back the pieces of the body that they had inherited during the division. Yielding to the demands of the sailors, Captain Clerk, who replaced Cook, allowed the Hawaiians to be dealt with. The sailors ruthlessly killed everyone they came across on the way, burned the villages. The natives sued for peace and returned the body parts, which the crew gave to the sea with great honors.

Contribution made to the history of geographical discoveries

Cook's activity was regarded by contemporaries and researchers of a later time ambiguously. Like any talented and bright personality, he had his fans and enemies. Father and son, Johann and Georg Forster, took part in the second voyage as natural scientists. The convictions of the eldest of them, who were strongly influenced by Rousseau's ideas about the "natural" man, made him a serious opponent of Cook in assessing many travel situations, especially those related to the relationship between Europeans and natives. Forster was mercilessly critical of Cook's actions and often idealized the inhabitants of the islands.

Serious disagreements between the scientist and the captain arose immediately upon returning from the voyage. Both Forsters categorically refused to adhere to the official plan of travel notes outlined by the Admiralty. Finally, Johann had to make a commitment not to publish his own description of the journey. But he gave his notes to George, who processed them and nevertheless published them three months earlier than the publication of Cook's notes. And in 1778, Forster Sr. published his "Observations made during a trip around the world."

Both books of the Forsters became an interesting commentary on the notes of their former boss and forced contemporaries to take a somewhat different look at the "valiant" and "merciful" behavior of the British during the expedition. At the same time, drawing idyllic pictures of heavenly prosperity on the islands of the southern seas, both naturalists sinned against the truth. Therefore, in everything related to the life, religion and culture of the natives, the notes of Cook, a man of a clear and cold mind, are more accurate, although the works of the Forsters for a long time served as a kind of encyclopedia of the countries of the southern seas and were very popular.

The dispute between the captain and scientists has not been resolved to this day. And now, not a single serious publication about James Cook is complete without quotes or references to the Forsters. Nevertheless, Cook was and remains the brightest star in the constellation of the discoverers of the Earth; he delivered to his contemporaries many accurate, objective observations of nature, customs and mores of the inhabitants of the territories he visited.

It is not difficult to verify this: all three books by J. Cook were published in Russian: “The first circumnavigation of the world by Captain James Cook. Sailing on the "Endeavour" in 1768-1771" (M., 1960), “The second circumnavigation of James Cook. Voyage to the South Pole and around the world in 1772–1775”, (Moscow, 1964), “The Third Voyage of Captain James Cook. Sailing in the Pacific Ocean in 1776-1780. (M., 1971). Despite the remoteness of what is written from our time, books are read with keen interest and carry a lot of information, including about the personalities of the captain himself and the people who surrounded him.

Roald Amundsen and the Search for the Northwest Passage. Amundsen was born into a family of Norwegian shipowners. Despite his mother's promises to become a doctor, after her death, Roald joined the family business. His first expedition was the Belgian Antarctic expedition of 1897-1899, where he was first assistant to Adrien de Gerlache. The very first independent expedition led by Amundsen aimed to find the Northwest Passage (presumably connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean in the north) in 1903. This elusive passage has been the target of many explorers since 1539. It was then that Cortes instructed Francisco Uloa to sail along the Baja Peninsula in California. Amundsen began his journey with six crew members on a 47-ton steel sealer ship called the Ioah. The journey began in the Baffin Sea, the movement began decisively, but then the team settled down for the winter, disappearing from public view for two whole years. During this time, Roald became friends with the Eskimos, learning a lot from them. The Norwegian learned how to survive in the eternal cold by learning how to use sled dogs and wear skins instead of wool jackets. At this time, Amundsen managed to make some more scientific notes about magnetism. Then the expedition took a course around the southern coast of Victoria Island and along the northern coast of Canada and Alaska. From the coast of this state, the last stage of the expedition began, 800 kilometers inland to the town of Eagle City, where there was a telegraph. From here, on December 5, 1905, Amundsen announced his success to the whole world. After wintering right there, the traveler arrived in Oslo only in 1906. Amundsen caught the separation of Norway from Sweden, reporting his achievement for all of Norway to the already new king, Haakon. But Amundsen did not stop in his desire for new discoveries, becoming the first person to reach the South Pole and one of the first to fly over the North Pole by air.

Hernan Cortes and the Fall of the Aztec Empire. Hernán Cortes was born in 1485 in Medellin, in what was then the Kingdom of Castile in Spain. He entered the University of Salamanca when he was fourteen years old, but soon tired of his studies and returned to Medellin. At that moment, the news about the discovery of Columbus came to the country. Cortes quickly assessed the prospects for conquering new lands and in 1504 departed for the New World. The Spaniard planned to become a colonist on the island of Hispaniola (now the island of Haiti). It was there that he registered as a citizen upon arrival. In 1506, Cortes took an active part in the conquest of Haiti and Cuba and was rewarded with real estate and Indian slaves. In 1518 he led an expedition to Mexico. But the Spanish governor, fearing competition from Cortes, canceled the campaign. This did not stop Cortes, he still went on his way. In February 119 he was accompanied by 11 ships, 500 men, 13 horses and some cannons. Arriving on the Yucatan Peninsula, Cortes burned his ships, thus cutting off his way back. Here the explorer met Jeronimo de Aguilare, a Spanish priest who survived a shipwreck and was captured by the Maya. Over time, he became the translator of Cortes. In March, Yucatan was declared a Spanish possession, and Hernan himself, as a tribute from the conquered tribes, received 20 young women, one of whom, Malinche, became his mistress and the mother of his child Martin. The woman became not just a concubine, but also a translator and adviser. The Spaniard quickly attracted to his side thousands of Indians who were tired of the rule of the Aztecs, promising them independence. When Cortes entered the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, in November 1519, he was greeted by Emperor Montezuma II. He considered Cortes the incarnation and messenger of the god Quetzalcoatl. The abundance of gold gifts and wealth around turned the Spaniard's head, and the authorities decided to return their obstinate researcher. When Cortes learned that a group of troops was heading towards him from Cuba, he left part of his troops in Tenochtitlan, while he himself departed for the Mexico Valley. When Cortes returned to the city, an uprising broke out there. In 1521, the Aztec troops were crushed, and their entire empire was conquered. Until 1524, Cortes ruled all of Mexico.

Charles Darwin's journey on the Beagle. Charles Darwin was born in 1809. Even before he started attending school, he showed a great interest in natural history and collecting. Studying medicine at the University of Edinburgh, Darwin quickly realized that this direction was not for him. Instead, he became interested in taxidermy under John Edmonstone, who had accompanied Charles Waterton on his journey through the rainforests of South America. In his second year of study, Darwin joined the Pliny Scientific Society, becoming a member of the Natural History Study Group. There he began to classify plants and animals. Darwin's father, annoyed by his son's studies, decided to transfer him to study at Cambridge. An important role was played by a letter from John Henslow, a friend of Charles and professor of botany. He proposed Darwin's candidacy as a free naturalist for the captain of the Beagle, Robert Fitzroy. Charles immediately accepted an offer to take part in a two-year expedition to the South American coast. The journey began on December 27, 1831 and lasted almost 5 years. Darwin spent much of his time examining geological specimens and building natural history collections. At this time, the ship itself was exploring the coast. The route of the expedition ran from English Portsmouth to St. Iago (now Santiago), Darwin visited Cape Verde, Brazil and Patagonia, Chile and the Galapagos Islands. Then there was the southern coast of Australia, the Cocos Islands, Cape Town and South Africa. During the expedition, Charles did not use any clear instructions. However, in his work he used the works of several well-known geologists and naturalists. Indeed, during his time at the university, Darwin was influenced by Robert Grant, William Paley (work "The Proof of Christianity"), John Henslow, Alexander von Humboldt ("Personal Narrative") and John Herschel. During his journey, Darwin became acquainted with thousands of species. When the scientist returned home and tried to catalog his collection, ideas began to form in his head that served as the basis for the fundamental work On the Origin of Species and the entire theory of evolution. This work became decisive in the life of the scientist, placing his name in history.

Ferdinand Magellan and the first trip around the world. Magellan was born in 1480 in Sabroz, Portugal. When the boy was only 10 years old, his parents died. Little Fernand became the page of Queen Eleanor. Already in his youth, the future navigator visited Egypt, India and Malaysia. But the royal family did not like Magellan's projects, and in 1517 he, together with the cosmographer Faleiro, offered his services to the Spanish crown. At that time, the Treaty of Tordesillas divided the New World between Portugal and Spain. Magellan calculated that the border Moluccas belonged to the Spaniards, offering them his services in finding a way to them. The expedition was approved by King Charles V, and on September 20, 1519, Magellan, along with 5 ships, left the country. The crew included 234 men from Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece and France. Initially, the path of the expedition lay in Brazil, and then along the South American coast to San Julian, in Patagonia. Wintering was made there, and there was also an attempted rebellion. Part of the team demanded a return to Spain. Magellan brutally suppressed the rebellion, executing the leader and shackling his accomplices. In September 1520, the expedition discovered the Strait of Magellan. By that time, there were three ships left. The South Sea was called the Pacific Ocean by the navigator because there were no storms on it. After landing on the island of Guam, a grueling raid to the Philippine Islands followed. Magellan sailed there in the spring of 1521. The Spaniard decided to subjugate the local lands to the crown and got involved in an internecine war between the two local tribes. Ferdinand Magellan himself died during the battles. The survivors were forced to sink one ship, another turned back. On September 8, 1522, only the Victoria reached Spain with 18 survivors under the leadership of Captain Juan Elcano, a former rebel. Interestingly, Magellan's flight was not planned at all. In principle, a round-the-world trip could not have a commercial effect. Only under the threat of an attack by the Portuguese "Victoria" continued to follow to the west.

Travels of Marco Polo. This researcher is the earliest on our list. But it was he who inspired many of his followers to new geographical discoveries. Marco was born in Venice, presumably in 1254. Both his father, Niccolo, and uncle Matteo were wealthy merchants who traded with the Middle East. When Marco was born, his father was away, they saw each other only after 15 years. The family was reunited for two years, living in Venice, after which the merchants went to China in 1271. They were sent there with letters from Pope Gregory X to Kublai Khan, whom the elder Polo had met during a previous expedition. The journey ran through Armenia, Persia, Afghanistan, the Pamir Mountains, along the Silk Road through the Gobi Desert and all the way to Beijing. Such a long journey took three whole years! Marco Polo spent the next 15 years of his life as a Chinese government official, he was both the ambassador of the Han and the governor of the city of Yangzhou. With the help of the Khan and his servants, the merchant learned the Mongolian language. Also, the Italian conducted several expeditions to the regions of China, India and Burma, until now still unknown. In 1291, the khan married one of his princesses to a Persian ilkhan, and allowed the Polo family to accompany the delegation. The Italians traveled to Sumatra and Ceylon and through Iran and the Black Sea returned to Venice. The further history of the life of the researcher is little known. He participated in the war with Genoa and was taken prisoner in 1298. While in captivity, Polo met the writer Rusticiano, who helped the merchant write down stories about his travels. The published book, known as The Travels of Marco Polo, became one of the most popular in medieval Europe. It should be noted that the discoveries of the Italian would not have been possible without his father and uncle, who had already paved the way to China, having established contacts with the Great Khan.

Travels of Livingston and Stanley. Dr. David Livingstone was a missionary sent to Africa in 1841. He decided to explore the inner world of the continent, when it suddenly turned out that the mission in Kolobeng, where he worked, was closing. It was Livingston who first discovered the Victoria Falls and became one of the first Europeans to make a transcontinental journey through Africa. Then the attention of the Englishman was attracted by the source of the Nile, the secret of which is already more than three thousand years old. His journey began from Zanzibar along the Ruvuma River to Lake Malawi and then to Ujiji on the shores of Lake Tanganyika. By that time, Livingston was practically alone, most of his cargo and medicines had been stolen. No wonder David got sick. But he stubbornly moved on, opening the lakes of Mweru and Bangweulu. By the end of March 1871, the Englishman reached the Lualaba River, believing that it was its source that was the source of the Nile. But unable to travel any further, Livingston returned to Ujiji, where he discovered that all of his fresh water supplies had been stolen. Although it was no longer possible to travel further, Livingston's discoveries became priceless - no one had yet climbed so deep into the heart of Africa. By that time, rumors about the disappearance of Livingston's expedition and his death filled Europe and America. This information caught the attention of a young American journalist, Henry Morton Stanley. Born in Wales and orphaned as a child, he moved to the New World at the age of eighteen. The young man began working for the merchant Henry Stanley, and when he died, he took his name and joined the Confederate army. At the end civil war Stanley became a journalist while working for the New York Herald. It was this publication that financed the expedition to find the Livingston expedition started in Zanzibar. Stanley followed the route of his predecessor, encountering many of the same problems - desertion and tropical diseases. On October 27, 1871, Stanley found the ailing Livingston at Ujiji on October 27, 1871. The Englishman stood among a group of Arab slave traders, and the journalist greeted him with the phrase that later became famous: "Doctor Livingston, I presume?" Stanley's expedition consisted of about 200 experienced porters, most of whom escaped or died along the way. Stanley at the same time flogged those who refused to go further. But Livingston walked along with freed slaves, twelve sepoys and two faithful servants from previous travels. It was they who delivered the body of the explorer who died in 1873 to the coast, from where it was taken to England.

Lewis and Clark. Expansion to the west. In 1803, America turned its attention to the West, to Louisiana. The American government did not really know what kind of land had previously been acquired from France. That is why President Thomas Jefferson directed Congress to provide $2,500 for the expedition, which was ready just a few weeks after the deal was closed. The research was to be led by Army Captain Merryweather Lewis, who chose William Clark as his partner. In May 1804, 3 sergeants and 22 soldiers set off with them, as well as volunteers, translators and slaves - a total of 43 people. The expedition began moving up the Missouri River, then wintered with the Mandan Indians. In the spring, the path lay in the upper reaches of the river, then the continental divide was crossed. Lewis and Clark crossed the Rocky Mountains, finding the Columbia River. Fort Claptsop was built at its mouth. Following the river, the Americans reached the Pacific Ocean. On their way back, the group split into three after the Rocky Mountains, reuniting later and returning in triumph to St. Louis. The city welcomed them on September 23, 1806 as heroes. The 28-month journey proved that there was an overland transcontinental route. Lewis and Clark brought with them a lot of information, including a map of their route, a description of the culture of the Indians, and observations of environment. On the journey, the brave Americans were not without the help of the natives. So, a young Indian woman from the Shoshone tribe Sacagawea decided to go with them, who carried her young son on her back for thousands of kilometers. Her knowledge and relationships with people largely determined the success of the mission.

Sir Edmund Hillary and the first successful summit of Everest. Edmund Hillary was born in Auckland, New Zealand on July 20, 1919. At the local university, he studied mathematics and science. Edmund then took up beekeeping, climbing several peaks with his twin brother in his spare time. With the outbreak of World War II, he decided to join the Air Force, but withdrew his application even before it was considered. But soon, thanks to the draft, Hillary nevertheless joined the Air Force as a navigator. In 1951 and 1952, as part of British scouts, he explored the approaches to Everest and Cho Oyu. In 1953, Hillary decided to climb the highest peak in the world. At that time, the road to Everest from Chinese Tibet was closed, and the Nepalese government allowed only one expedition per year. In 1952, the Swiss failed due to bad weather, the next year it was the turn of the British. The head of the expedition, Tom Hunt, created two teams for the ascent. Hillary was in the same group as the experienced Norgay Tenzig. In total, the expedition included 362 porters, 20 guides and about 4 tons of cargo. The first attempt to conquer the peak was made by Bourdillon and Evans, but they did not reach the summit due to a breakdown in the oxygen supply system. On May 28, Hillary and Tenzig, with three companions, began their assault on Everest. The overnight stay took place at an altitude of 8500 meters, from where the brave climbers continued their journey together. On May 29 at 11:30 am local time, the pair reached the summit. They were only there for 15 minutes. During this time, they took pictures, left a chocolate bar as an offering to the gods, and hoisted a flag. The first person to greet the heroes was George Lowe, Hillary's best friend. He went up to meet the couple with hot soup. For their efforts, Hillary and expedition leader Hunt received a knighthood from the queen, while Tenzig was awarded a medal. Hunt became a life peer, while Hillary received numerous awards and lifetime recognition. Hillary's feat would not have been possible without the participation of Norgay Tenzing, a Nepalese Sherpa. He was born in 1914 and had rich experience of participation in the Himalayan expeditions. He has already taken part in 6 previous attempts to conquer Everest. Norgay initially joined the expedition as a leader of the Sherpas, but when he saved Hillary from falling into a crevasse, he was seen as the ideal climbing partner.

Christopher Columbus and the discovery of America. This explorer, one of the most famous in the world, was born in Genoa, Italy in 1451. Columbus' father was a weaver, the young man had to continue this business. But in 1472 the family moved to Savona, and Christopher himself began to take part in sea voyages, enrolling in the Portuguese merchant fleet. Perhaps as early as 1474, in the course of correspondence with the astronomer and geographer Toscanelli, Columbus thought about finding a sea route to India through the West. However, this project was not in demand for a long time. Only in 1492, Columbus, with the participation of King Ferdinand II of Spain and Queen Isabella, was able to equip the expedition. On August 3, 1492, three ships left the harbor of Palos - the Santa Maria, the Nina and the Pinta. They visited the Canary Islands, which belong to Castile, and sailed across the Atlantic Ocean for five weeks. And at 2 am on October 12, 1492, the sailor Rodrigo de Triana saw the land from the Pinta. The found island was named San Salvador, it was one of the Bahamas. Columbus further discovered the islands of Espalola (Haiti), which was similar to the lands of Castile, and Juan (Cuba). During the expedition, Columbus met with the Arawak Indians, whom he initially mistook for poor Chinese. Returning to Spain, he kidnapped about 25 of them, only seven survived. Columbus returned to Palos on March 15, 1493, and was appointed Admiral of the Sea-Ocean and Governor-General of all lands already and future found. Subsequently, Columbus made three more trips to the New World, more and more complementing the map of the modern Caribbean. In his search, Columbus had practically no like-minded people, because his ideas were rather strange for the Western world. Only Columbus's mistake was that, looking for Asia, he found a new mainland, although he convinced the Spaniards of the opposite. In his assessment of the project, Columbus used the works of Marco Polo, Imago Mundi and Ptolemy's estimates of the circumference of the Earth.

Neil Armstrong's first steps on the moon. Armstrong was born on August 5, 1930 in Wapakone, Ohio. At an early age, the boy became interested in airplanes. On his sixteenth birthday, Armstrong received his pilot's license, and he was even able to build a wind tunnel in his basement. In it, he conducted experiments with aircraft models. After two years of study at Purdue University, he was called to active duty. military service, flying 78 sorties during the Korean War. Upon his return from the war, Armstrong received a degree in aeronautical engineering. Then there was the position of test pilot at NASA. In September 1962, Armstrong became America's first civilian astronaut and began his training in Houston, Texas. Neil was a reserve pilot for the Gemini 5 expedition, and in 1966 he flew into space on the Gemini 8. Armstrong was noted for being able to troubleshoot the aircraft and regain control of the controls, making an emergency landing just 1.1 miles from the intended landing site. The astronaut began to prepare for the flight on the Gemini 11, but was selected for the team preparing for the flight to the moon. In January 1969, it was Neil Armstrong who was chosen as the commander of the Apollo 11 mission, which was supposed to deliver earthlings to the satellite. At 9:32 am on July 16, 1969, a crew consisting of Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin Aldrin lifted off from the Kennedy Space Center. The successful journey to the Moon took four days. The team landed on the moon on July 20, broadcast around the world on radio and television. At 10:56 p.m., Armstrong became the first person to walk on the moon. His phrase: "This is one small step for a man, but a giant leap for all mankind" - immediately became famous. Armstrong and Aldrin spent two hours on the lunar surface, collecting soil samples, setting up a television camera, a seismograph, and the US flag. Such a great achievement by Armstrong and Apollo 11 would not have been possible without the help of a group of hundreds of assistants on Earth, in Mission Control. Someone was responsible for the operation of each block of the vehicle. They were all flown by Flight Director, Gene Krantz, who also directed Gemini 4 and the odd Apollo missions. It is Krantz who the Apollo 13 crew is primarily grateful for their return home.

The first Russian circumnavigation of the world 1803-1806 Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky

Kamchatka

Nadezhda entered the Avacha Bay on July 14, 1804. The population of Petropavlovsk then was about 200 people. Governor General Koshelev arrived here from Nizhnekamchatsk (then the capital of the peninsula), who in every possible way contributed to the repair of the ship and preparations for a visit to Japan. The expedition was left by a doctor and an artist, and the brawler Tolstoy was forcibly "written ashore". August 30, 1804 "Hope" headed for Japan.

Japan

It is known from the history of Japan that any foreign ships were prohibited from entering Japanese ports. And the inhabitants of the islands of the rising sun were strictly forbidden to contact with foreigners. Such forced self-isolation saved Japan from possible colonization and trade expansion by Europeans, and also contributed to the preservation of its identity. Only merchants of the Dutch East India Company were allowed to trade in the port of Nagasaki, the southernmost point of the country. The Dutch had a monopoly on trade with Japan and did not let competitors into their possessions, hid sea charts with coordinates, etc. Therefore, Kruzenshtern had to drive Nadezhda to Nagasaki almost at random, simultaneously shooting Japanese coasts.

To Nagasaki

Kruzenshtern's ship with Ambassador Rezanov entered the harbor of Nagasaki on October 8, 1804. On board the Russians had several Japanese who had once fallen to the Russians as a result of the crash, and whom the expedition carried with them as translators.

A Japanese representative entered the ship and asked hu-is-hu, they say, where and why they arrived. Then the Japanese pilot helped the Nadezhda enter the harbor, where they dropped anchor. Only Japanese, Chinese and Dutch ships were in the harbor.

Negotiations with the Japanese

This topic deserves a separate story and a separate article. Let's just say that the Japanese "purged" the Russian "diplomatic mission" in the port of Nagasaki until April 18, 1805 - five and a half months! And Kruzenshtern and Rezanov had to go home without salty slurping.

The Japanese emperor “paused” for a long time, then answered through his officials that there would be no agreements with the Russians, and he could not accept the gifts of the Russian emperor - several huge mirrors in an expensive frame. Say, Japan is not able to equally thank the emperor of the Russians because of their poverty. Laughter, and more! Either the Dutch did a good job here, or the Japanese themselves did not want any contacts with Russia.

True, the Japanese administration supplied the ship with food all the time the ship was in the port. And loaded the road with food, water and lots of salt for free. At the same time, Kruzenshtern was categorically forbidden to return along the western coast of Japan.

Return of Nadezhda to Kamchatka

Coming out of the Japanese "captivity", Kruzenshtern decided not to give a damn about the Japanese ban and went precisely along the western coast, putting it on the map. At sea, he was his own master and was not afraid of anyone - past combat experience gave him every reason to do so. He landed on the shore several times and got to know this mysterious country as closely as he could. It was possible to establish contacts with the Ainu - the inhabitants of the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido.

Sakhalin

Nadezhda entered the Aniva Bay in the south of Sakhalin on May 14, 1805. The Ainu also lived here and the Japanese administration commanded. Kruzenshtern was determined to explore Sakhalin in more detail, but Rezanov insisted on a speedy return to Kamchatka in order to report to St. Petersburg on the results of his "embassy".

Kamchatka

On June 5, Nadezhda returned to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. Rezanov went ashore, sent a report to the capital, and left on a merchant ship for Russian America in Alaska. July 5, 1805 "Nadezhda" again went to sea and headed for Sakhalin. But Kruzenshtern failed to go around Sakhalin "around" and determine whether it was an island or a peninsula. On August 30, the Nadezhda team entered the Avacha Bay of Petropavlovsk for the third time. Kruzenshtern began to prepare for a campaign in Macau.

Macau

This is the name of the Portuguese colony-fortress-port on the Chinese coast. Leaving Petropavlovsk on October 9, 1805, Nadezhda was in Macau on November 20. The Neva was nowhere to be seen.

Travel "Neva"

Russian America

On July 10, 1804, the Neva sloop, under the command of Lieutenant-Commander Lisyansky, approached Kodiak Island on the southern coast of Alaska. The island was one of the first places of capital justification of Russians in America. Lisyansky brought the ship to the harbor of St. Paul - a kind of administrative center of this Russian province. Here he learned that the second center of the Russians - the Arkhangelsk fortress in Sitka Bay, much south and east of Kodiak, had been attacked by the local Indians. The fortress was burned, the inhabitants were killed. The conflict flared up not without the help and instigation of the Americans, by that time they began to actively penetrate into these places.

Alexander Andreevich Baranov, the legendary ruler of Russian America, left "for war" to recapture the Arkhangelsk fortress with the help of Russian-friendly Indians and Aleuts. Baranov left a message for Lisyansky asking him to urgently arrive in Sitka to provide armed assistance. However, the crew of the Neva spent almost a month unloading the ship's holds and repairing the equipment. On August 15, the Neva headed towards Sitka.

Novoarkhangelsk - Sitka

On August 20, Lisyansky was already in Sitka Bay. Here he met Alexander Baranov, who made a strong impression on him. Together they worked out a plan for a military operation. The guns and sailors of the Neva played a decisive role in restoring the "status quo" in relations with the Tinklit Indians. Not far from the burnt old fortress, a new settlement, Novoarkhangelsk, was founded. On November 10, the Neva left Sitka and headed for Kodiak.

Back in Kodiak

"Neva" appeared in five days. Since winter was approaching, it was decided to spend the winter here, repair, rest and fill the holds with precious junk - furs of the Russian-American Company. At the beginning of the next summer, on June 13, 1805, Lisyansky's ship left the harbor of St. Paul and headed for Sitka to pick up the furs prepared by Baranov, and after that go to Macau.

Back in Sitka - Novoarkhangelsk

The Neva turned out to be June 22, 1805. During the winter, Baranov managed to rebuild the settlement, restore peace with the local Indians, and procure a large number of furs. Having loaded soft gold into the holds, Lisyansky on September 2, 1805 headed for Macau.

To Macau

Krusenstern arrived in Macau on November 20, 1805. Lisyansky reached the Chinese coast only on December 3rd. Here I had to stay for more than two months, "getting used" to local conditions, the economic and political situation, to maneuver, to bargain. In this, both military sailors Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky showed remarkable abilities. And they emerged victorious in the trade war with local merchants. Instead of furs, the holds of the ships were filled with tea, porcelain and other liquid goods in Europe. February 9, 1806 "Nadezhda" and "Neva" left the Chinese coast and headed for their homeland.

Across two oceans

The ships were swept away on the way to the Cape of Good Hope. The captains had previously agreed to meet at St. Helena. Krusenstern arrived at St. Helena on May 3, 1806. Here he learned that Russia was at war with Napoleon and France. Without waiting for the Neva, Nadezhda went north to her native land, deciding for safety to go around England from the north so as not to collide with the French in the English Channel.

Meanwhile, Lisyansky decided to set a kind of record - to go from China to Europe without calling at intermediate ports. The ship no longer had heavy cargo, took enough supplies of food and water, and went with full sail. Therefore, Lisyansky did not appear on the island of St. Helena and, accordingly, did not know about the war with France. He calmly entered the English Channel, and there he decided to go to the British port of Portsmouth. Having rested in Portsmouth for a couple of weeks, on July 13, 1806, the Neva again went to sea and on August 5, 1806 was already at home. And on August 19, 1806, the sails of the Nadezhda appeared in view of their native shores.

Thus ended the first round-the-world voyage of Russian sailors, an unprecedented trip filled with dangers and adventures, interesting and significant events for history.

It should be said that from the point of view of profit, the expedition fully justified itself, bringing considerable profit to the merchants, glory to the Fatherland and forever inscribing the names of Russian navigators Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky in the history of navigation.

Emperor Alexander I royally awarded I.F. Kruzenshtern and all members of the expedition.

all officers received the following ranks,

commanders of the Order of St. Vladimir 3rd degree and 3000 rubles each.

lieutenants by 1000

midshipmen for 800 rubles of a life pension

the lower ranks, if desired, were dismissed and awarded a pension of 50 to 75 rubles.

By the highest command, a special medal was knocked out for all participants in this first round-the-world trip.

“A journey around the world in 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the ships Nadezhda and Neva, under the command of Lieutenant Commander Kruzenshtern” in 3 volumes, with an atlas of 104 maps and engraved paintings. This was the name of the work written personally by Kruzenshtern and published at the expense of the imperial cabinet., St. Petersburg, 1809. Subsequently, it was translated into many European languages.

Russian travelers and pioneers

Again Travelers of the Age of Discovery

Our Pechora-Yugorsk journey began with the fact that we flew by plane to Naryan-Mar, the only city of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, and then by taxi we got to the Pechora River, where we collected our kayak on the beach of the village of Iskateley.

Pechora River

We started on the evening of June 28th. The weather did not spoil us from the very beginning - a head North-West wind was blowing, it was quite cold - only about 10 degrees. As a result, we walked along the Pechora for almost eight days, instead of the planned three or four, because in addition to the wind resistance, which invariably blows in our faces, we also had to overcome a very steep and short oncoming wave.

Pechora is a full-flowing river, therefore, with such winds blowing against its powerful current, it becomes very difficult to pass. In some places we had to stand for a couple of days, waiting out the bad weather. The river at that time had very high water, and its low banks were often completely flooded with water, above which only impassable willow thickets protruded, so it was very difficult to stop.

Five days later the weather improved, one day a south-westerly wind blew, for us a side wind and very convenient for sailing. Under sail, we quickly moved even closer to the mouth, and two days later successfully entered the Barents Sea. Now we had to overcome the Bolvanskaya Bay - the first obstacle in our path. But the weather turned bad again. We did not dare to cross the bay directly and went around it around the perimeter under sail.

I must say, our sailing equipment this time was very good and allowed us to sail courses up to 45 degrees to the wind. We invented the spars, and ordered the sails themselves from the St. Petersburg master Sergey Novitsky, all the time I mentally thanked him.

The passage of the small Bolvanskaya Bay dragged on for several days. We could only go under sail for a short time, and most of the time we had to slowly crawl on the oars against the wind. The matter was further complicated by the extremely uncomfortable bottom in the bay: it was exceptionally shallow here, and at low tide the bay dried up many hundreds of meters from the shore, and then the depth for several kilometers reached, God forbid, 15-20 centimeters. With such a depth, of course, it is very difficult to walk, scratching your belly.

By the way, here we managed to lose the only compass. What a shame - now you have to navigate only by the sun, clocks and maps.

In the sea

But everything comes to an end, and on July 11 we left Bolvanskaya Bay behind, went to the village of Farikha, where we drank tea with a local fisherman and asked him about the local weather and sailing conditions. After that, we moved further to the northeast, passed the no longer working oil terminal in the village of Dresvyanka, and three days later we reached the weather station, located ten kilometers west of Cape Konstantinovsky, where we again met the fishermen, having talked with whom, we went further. Having walked quite a bit from the weather station, we stood in a rather uncomfortable, low and swampy place.

The next day the weather began to deteriorate, the west wind rose, favorable to us, but too strong to go further. A day later, a real storm began, which brought a huge amount of water from the ocean to the shore, due to which its level increased, and our camp was literally washed away. We managed to evacuate to a higher place about half an hour before the sea flooded the tundra several kilometers away from the usual coastline.

On July 17, the storm ended, and a calm easterly breeze blew again. We rowed further, reaching Cape Burner. During the day the weather deteriorated, it began to rain, and the next morning the wind again set to the west and intensified. Having left, we raised the sail, but the passage was limited to fifteen minutes: the wind increased sharply, it began to storm, and we hastily threw ourselves ashore. Yes, the weather here is capricious, in this place we had to spend another two days, waiting for the wind to weaken.

The next transition was more successful. Having sailed around the huge shoals, we passed Cape Chernaya Lopatka, and stood in Pakhancheskaya Bay. The place here again turned out to be terribly uncomfortable, low. Now we knew for sure that it was the same here, during westerly storms, the tundra would be flooded with the sea for several kilometers. All the lakes and streams here turned out to be completely salty, and in search of fresh water we had to go quite far to find at least some fresh puddle.

In the evening of the next day we went further, we really wanted to quickly reach Varandey, a settlement located exactly in the middle of our route. We decided to cross Pakhancheskaya Bay straight ahead. A light breeze blew from the south, we slowly moved forward, but soon the rain caught up with us. The wind intensified, from the pure south it began to set in the southeast. Both the coast and the low night sun disappeared behind the rain - we immediately lost our orientation in space. In order not to inadvertently jump out into the open ocean from the bay, we took it to the east, and in a few hours we found ourselves on the coast, twenty-five kilometers south of the Pesyakov Shar channel. Here we again faced problems with water, but we stood in this place for another day, after which, again under sail, in three passages, by July 25 we reached Varandey.

The sea near Varandey met us with high steep waves and a headwind from the east. We felt mortally tired and, having entered the frontier post in Novy Varandey, retreated ten kilometers to the west, to Pesyakov Island, where we hoped to wait for more suitable weather. Our fatigue, as it turned out, had a very specific nature: the oxygen content in the air at high latitudes is much lower than in the middle lane. The body's need for food and rest increases, and the forces become much less. Everything was complicated by the fact that we were running out of food, and there was no store in Varandey. Fortunately, the local land is very rich in game, and therefore we were not threatened with famine. We spent three more days on Pesyakovo, after which we set off further.

The wind still blew in our faces, and we moved forward very slowly, making small transitions. So, on August 1, we reached Cape Polyarny, where the semi-abandoned base "Medynka" was located, guarded by two watchmen. Here we stayed for two days, ate, and then acquired a month's supply of cereals at a nearby drilling site. Now we could boldly go further and, having rounded Cape Medynsky, having crossed the transport bay with a fair wind, we stood twenty kilometers north of Cape Perevozny Nos.

Next, we had to cross the Khaipudyr Bay in a narrow place - the last serious obstacle on the way to Vaigach. On August 7, under sail, we reached the cape, turning near which, we moved through the sixteen-kilometer throat of the bay in order to reach its eastern shore. When we moved away from the Transportation Nose, it was already getting dark, but there was still enough light to see the opposite high coast. The wind died down, we lowered the sails and rowed forward. However, not even an hour had passed before a fresh wind blew from the west at our backs. The wind kept getting fresher, the sky was covered with clouds, it was getting dark all around, and, finally, we began to lose sight of the coast to which we were going.

Fortunately, the dawn was still visible in the north, and we could confidently keep the right direction. The waves gradually became steeper and meaner, soon they rolled chaotically from different directions and we finally realized that we probably got excited, going through the lip not only at night, but also at low tide. It became clear that now we would fall into a real ripple: at low tide, a huge mass of water rushes from the Khaipudyr Bay into the ocean and, colliding with the ocean current, forms very high chaotic waves raging for several kilometers.

We were mortally afraid of this, but there was no way to go back because of the strong western wind. Resigned to the inevitable, we rushed headlong into this sula, and for the rest of the journey we suffered such fear that we almost turned gray.

To understand what a sea sula is, imagine a powerful threshold of ten kilometers in length, in which there are no stones, but ramparts of at least two meters in height are constantly raging. Cape Sinkin Nos. The weather turned hopelessly bad, a storm raged. Here we had to spend another four days, waiting out the bad weather. On foot, we went to the uninhabited village of Sinkin, where we met a lone hunter who lives there, and from whom we learned many interesting local tales.

When the weather improved, we went further, and in two crossings we reached Cape Cherny Nos near the mouth of the Korotaikha River. Forty kilometers from the mouth is the village of Karatayka, the largest settlement in these places, but we were not interested in it then, and at the next crossing we reached the Bolshaya Talata River in Belkovskaya Bay. Here we rested during the day, and on August 16 we set off north along the coast of the Yugra Peninsula.

A fresh south wind was blowing, which, as it turned out later, reached a speed of 21 m / s. In just two days we reached the Yugorsky Shar strait, where we spent the night at the Bely Nos polar station. Now we had to cross the strait in order to reach our cherished goal. This did not cause any difficulties, and on August 19 we landed on the white rocky shores of Vaygach Island, near Cape Kanin Nos. Here we finally got the opportunity to rinse our boots in the cold waters of the Kara Sea, the western border of which here runs exactly along the line Bely Nos - Cape Greben.

From here we decided to return to Karatayka, although only 40 kilometers remained to Amderma, due to the fact that it was almost impossible to get out of Amderma “on the ground” for real money. Now about 200 kilometers separated us from the desired finish, but the wind blew stubbornly from the southwest and we could hardly expect to return quickly back to the mouth of the Korotaikha. And so it happened: we crawled 70 kilometers to the hut on the Sedayakha River in six days. We stayed on Sedaiakh for several days, waiting for another storm.

In the vicinity, we were lucky to meet reindeer herders and a passing all-terrain vehicle, on which on August 30 we successfully reached Karatayka, from where, by September 3, we also reached Vorkuta on an all-terrain vehicle.

In general, on this journey, out of seventy days in total, there were no more than forty running. And on average, if we divide the total mileage by the total amount of time spent on the expedition, our speed was just over ten kilometers per day. This is very little compared even to the White Sea, where our average daily mileage was almost fifteen kilometers. In addition, as we understood, it was necessary to leave not at the end, but at the beginning of June, as soon as the sea begins to free itself from ice. In this case, the duration of the season will not be two months (as in our case), but almost three. Indeed, at the end of August it is almost impossible to go kayaking here - the wind blows much stronger, it storms almost every day, and frosts begin at night.

However, the Barents Sea cannot be called more severe and complex than, for example, the White Sea. Storms come here and there, and in any sea they are dangerous. If we compare the White and Barents Seas, then we can say that it is much easier to land on the shore in the Barents Sea in a kayak - there are no such huge littoral areas covered with viscous silt that prevent you from approaching land.

On the Barents Sea, the bottom is sandy or rocky - it is a pleasure to wander along it. At the beginning of summer, there are not many storms here and there are quite a few days when the sea is absolutely calm and the water is smooth as glass. Therefore, it cannot be said that the Barents Sea is extremely dangerous and impassable for a kayak. You just have to keep in mind that storms come here more often and forces leave much faster.

Our difficulties arose more likely not at sea, but on land - due to strong winds, lack of oxygen and cold weather. We took three times more food than usual, and our strength ended twice as fast. For example, in thirty-five days we walked only four hundred kilometers to the Medynsky inversion, and by this time we had almost run out of food stored for two months.

Nevertheless, despite all the difficulties and surprises, the trip turned out to be simply unforgettable, and we will continue it next year. I think it should turn out to be no less interesting and exciting than this.

Well, now, it's time to move on to reading stories about the Pechora-Yugorsk journey.

• Forward

I am sure that many people know about the first round-the-world trip led by Ferdinand Magellan. This historic event played key role in the process of discovering new lands and territories, but this expedition was carried out by the Spaniards, and I would like to tell you about our compatriots who were able to accomplish such a feat.

General travel information

The Russians decided to travel around the world much later than the Spaniards, led by Ferdinand Magellan. This event dates back to 1803, and its duration was the same as that of the first expedition - 3 years. But if the Spaniards had Magellan, then who were the commanders of the Russians? These were two people, namely: Yuri Lisyansky and Ivan Kruzenshtern, who commanded the crews of their ships Neva and Nadezhda. Further, I would like to say about the significance of this expedition for Russia in general. It also influenced the raising of the level of the Russian fleet, and, of course, brought many benefits to the study of world waters. Now I want to go, in fact, to the route along which the expedition moved.

Description of the journey by Russians around the world

The beginning of the journey was marked by a personal inspection of Alexander I of the ships, which became home for sailors for the next 3 years. In addition, I can highlight:

Now, regarding the itinerary. It originates in Kronstadt, and the first stop was the Danish city of Copenhagen, after which the expedition went to Britain, and then visited the Canary Islands and Spain. After a short pause, they headed to Brazil, visited Easter Island and the Hawaiian Islands. The next addressee was Russian Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky and Japan, then Alaska, China and even Macau, which is located in Portugal. After visiting St. Helena, the Azores and Portsmouth in the UK, the travelers returned to Kronstadt.