Andreeva G.M. Social psychology The textbook is a systematic course social psychology. Fundamental problems (communication, social psychology groups, social psychology personality). Characterize the subject social psychology, historical milestones of its development, methodology and research methods.

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Rationalism. In the works of his students - Festinger, Schechter and others. The endogenous position was further developed thanks to the concept social reality (opposing physical reality), social comparison, motivated perception, cognitive dissonance. The dominant position occupied in social psychology Research of this kind made subsequent generations of scientists especially sensitive to such phenomena and processes as cognitive...

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Immediate help from a psychiatrist. A number of suicidology centers and offices have appeared in Russia today socially-psychological assistance, where people in critical situations can receive professional help. An exceptionally important step in suicide prevention is to provide assistance to the suicidal person from outside social employee. As practice shows, there are three main ways to help a person thinking about...

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They realize that they belong to this education. At the same time, the overwhelming number of studies in social psychology performed on the material of so-called small groups. The psychological literature contains many different approaches... classifications. Currently, about 50 different bases for group classifications are known. Most widespread in western social psychology small groups were divided into: primary and secondary; formal and informal; “membership groups” and...

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Decent men, but the other’s relationships with the opposite sex just don’t work out? What's the matter? Psychology relationship helps to look at the situation from the outside. Often those who are popular with men do not have impeccable appearance, ... over time we begin to avoid him, even if we do not realize what is happening. Now let's move this to psychology relationship between man and woman. The only reason a man would seek the company of a woman is if he...

From a modern perspective, the foundations of social psychology and the main directions of applied social psychology are outlined. The socio-psychological theories of personality, the system of relationships and communication, conflicts are considered, the characteristics of communities and social institutions are given, the essence of socio-psychological diagnostics and development is revealed. Complies with the latest generation Federal State Educational Standard for Secondary Professional Education. For students of secondary vocational education institutions. May be useful for psychologists, sociologists, social workers and managers.

The work belongs to the genre of Educational Literature. The book is part of the series "Secondary vocational education (Knorus)". On our website you can download the book "Fundamentals of Social Psychology" in fb2, rtf, epub, pdf, txt format or read online. Here, before reading, you can also turn to reviews from readers who are already familiar with the book and find out their opinion. In our partner's online store you can buy and read the book in paper version.

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Social psychology: Textbook for universities (edited by Sukhov A.N., Derkach A.A.).

Series: Higher education. 2001 600 pp. ISBN 5-7695-0627-X

Part I. FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY

Preface........................................................ ........................................................ ........

SECTION I. INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY Chapter 1. The subject of social psychological theory, its meaning and place in psychological science. 8 § 1. Subject of socio-psychological theory..................................

§ 2. The structure of socio-psychological theory and its significance....................................

SECTION P. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY Chapter 2. Socio-psychological theories of personality...................................................

§ 1. Specifics of the socio-psychological approach to understanding personality § 2. Characteristics of socio-psychological theories of personality......

Chapter 3. Socio-psychological aspects of personality socialization......

§ 1. The concept of stages, institutions and mechanisms of personality socialization.....

§ 2. The influence of socio-psychological factors on the socialization of the individual.........

§ 3. Asocialization, desocialization and resocialization of the individual..................................................

Chapter 4. Socio-psychological competence of the individual............... § 1. Concept and factors that determine the socio-psychological competence of the individual § 2. Socio-psychological competence as the leading property of a professional.. SECTION III. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF RELATIONS AND COMMUNICATION Chapter 5. The essence, structure and functions of social relations and communication.... § 1. The concept and types of social relations, their relationship with communication............. § 2. Concept and types of communication.................................................. ............. § 3. Functions and difficulties of communication.................................... ................... § 4. Characteristics of professional communication........................ Chapter 6. Deformation of social relations and communications........................ § 1. Essence and types of deformation of social relations....... § 2. Deformations of communication: criminogenic aspect.................................. SECTION IV. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMUNITIES AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Chapter 7. Socio-psychological characteristics of communities and social institutions § 1. Socio-psychological analysis of society................... § 2. Concept and classification of communities and social institutions.................... § 3. Social and psychological characteristics of the stratification of society.

Image, quality and style of life..... Chapter 8. Small informal groups, their structure and dynamics......... § I. Concept and types of small informal groups......... ............. § 2. The emergence and development of a small informal group...... § 3. Social and psychological characteristics of the established group............... .. Chapter 9. Social psychology of the family.................................................. .......... § 1. Socio-psychological classification and functions of the family..................... § 2. Socio-psychological problems of the family ..................... Chapter 10. Culture and climate of social organizations.................................. ....... § 1. Concept and components of organizational culture........ § 2. Characteristics of the socio-psychological climate of various social organizations............ .................... Chapter 11. Social psychology of production communities................ §1. Socio-psychological characteristics of production communities during the transition to market relations.. § 2. Psychology of management................................................... .............. Chapter 12. Socio-psychological characteristics of criminal communities.................. § 1. Social- psychological understanding of organized crime................... §2. Common crime: socio-psychological analysis....................... Chapter 13. Psychology of large social groups and movements......... .... § 1. Signs of large social groups and movements.................. § 2. Characteristics of mass socio-psychological phenomena.............. ................... Chapter 14. Crowd psychology.................................. ............................................... § 1. The socio-psychological essence of the crowd....................... § 2. Characteristics of various types of crowds............... ............... Chapter 15. Culture and education as a social institution.................. § 1. Culture as a social institution. .................................... § 2. Education as a social institution...... ...........................Chapter 16. Social psychology of security.................. ...................... § 1. Social and psychological dimension of security......... § 2. Safe power...... ........................................................ ............ § 3. Public safety.................................... ................. SECTION V. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF TENSION AND CONFLICTS Chapter 17. Social tension.............. ........................................... § 1. Concept, levels, reasons and mechanisms for the emergence of social tension.... § 2. Forms of manifestation of social tension.................. Chapter 18. Socio-psychological characteristics of conflicts...... § 1. Fundamentals of conflictology: the concept of conflicts, their structure, functions, stages of occurrence and types.. § 2. Conflicts in various communities..................... ................. Chapter 19. Techniques for relieving social tension and resolving conflicts:

theoretical aspect. § 1. Techniques for relieving social tension.................................. § 2. Conflict resolution............ ....................................Chapter 20. Theory of socio-psychological influence... ................. § 1. The essence of socio-psychological impact........... § 2. Characteristics of socio-psychological impact..... Chapter 21. Social psychology of fashion and propaganda.................................. § 1. Concept and functions of fashion...... ................................................§ 2. Psychology of propaganda.................................................. ............ Conclusion..................................... ........................................................ .................... Part II. FUNDAMENTALS OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Preface.................................................... ........................................................ .......... SECTION VI. INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 22. Subject, structure and tasks of applied social psychology...... §1. Structure and subject of applied social psychology.... § 2. Theoretical foundations of applied social psychology: state and prospects for development...... § 3. Functions and tasks of applied social psychology...... SECTION VII. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL DIAGNOSTICS AND IMPACT Chapter 23. Organization of socio-psychological diagnostics........ § 1. Software for socio-psychological diagnostics...... ...... § 2. Organization and procedure for conducting socio-psychological diagnostics........... Chapter 24. Characteristics of the main methods of socio-psychological diagnostics, features of their application in applied social psychology.. .......... § 1. Observation and experiment as methods of socio-psychological diagnostics. Hardware methods for diagnosing socio-psychological phenomena..... § 2. The use of surveys in socio-psychological diagnostics........................... § 3. Content analysis as a method of socio-psychological diagnostics.......... § 4. Testing of socio-psychological phenomena............... § 5. Non-traditional methods of socio-psychological diagnostics. ........ Chapter 25. Diagnosis of specific socio-psychological phenomena............... § 1. Socio-psychological diagnosis of social relations and communication...... ............. § 2. Diagnosis of mass socio-psychological phenomena. ..................... Chapter 26. Characteristics of the main methods of influencing socio-psychological phenomena.. § 1. Concept, types and organization of socio-psychological training... ............... § 2. Concept and basic techniques of socio-psychological counseling....... SECTION VIII. GROUP AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT Chapter 27. Socio-psychological diagnostics of group and personal development.. § I. Socio-psychological diagnostics of family problems..... § 2. Socio-psychological diagnostics of small informal groups.... § 3. Social -psychological diagnostics of personality............ § 4. Non-medical group psychotherapy: essence, stages and methods of implementation......... SECTION IX. ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Chapter 28. Socio-psychological aspects of organizational development......... § I. Functions and effectiveness of social organizations......... § 2. Socio-psychological diagnostics of social organizations. ......... § 3. Formation of the image of social organizations...............(319) § 4. Social and psychological training of business communication...... § 5. Organizational consulting, its essential characteristics............ § 6. Basic algorithm for organizational consulting..... SECTION X. AREAS OF APPLICATION OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 29. Practice of using social psychology in various fields tah......... (370) § 1. Applied social psychology and politics................. § 2. Applied social psychology in the field of economics... .. § 3. Applied social psychology in education................ § 4. Applied social psychology in healthcare.... § 5. Extreme applied social psychology......... ... Conclusion.............................................. ........................................................ .......... Section I INTRODUCTION TO SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY Chapter SUBJECT OF SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY, ITS SIGNIFICANCE AND PLACES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE § 1. Subject of socio-psychological theory Almost any textbook on psychology begins with decoding the concept of “psychological gia." At the same time, it is certainly indicated that it is of Greek origin and consists of two words: “psyche” - soul and “logos” - teaching. The concept of “soul” is ambiguous; it has several interpretations. Materialists understand the human psyche by the concept of “soul”. As for the idealistic understanding of the soul, here it is interpreted in a divine, theological sense. However, such an understanding of psychology, based on a clear separation of materialism and idealism, is a thing of the past. Once again, as before, the problem of the soul and spirituality arose in full force. Today, several approaches to understanding spirituality have emerged:

1) traditionally materialistic;

2) idealistic, religious;

3) based on the use of religious experience in psychological practice.

The position of the authors of the textbook is to move away from the vulgar understanding of the connection between psychology and religion, to recognize the complex relationship between them and to the inadmissibility of replacing psychology with religion. There is a connection between them, it should be recognized as useful, but within a certain framework, and not in all cases without exception. V.V. Znakov and A.V. Brushlinsky are right when they say that “spirit, soul, spirituality, spirituality, etc. “It’s not suprapsychic.”

If we use the traditional approach to understanding social psychology, it turns out that this is the doctrine of “the social soul,” or the psyche. The question arises, what does the word “social” mean? In this case, you need to keep the following in mind. Lu-|m)s social phenomenon arises as a result of the interaction of man and man, man and community, community and community. This is precisely the nature of the social.

As a result of interaction, socio-psychological phenomena arise, i.e. interaction forms the circle of phenomena that ultimately constitutes the subject of social psychology. The famous domestic psychologist K.K. Platonov emphasized that not all professional psychologists understand how social psychology differs from other branches of psychology. Speaking about the specifics of social psychology, he meant precisely those effects (“plus” or “minus”) that are born as a result of interaction.

In the process of clarifying the subject of social psychology as a science, several periods can be distinguished:

1. Accumulation of socio-psychological knowledge in the field of philosophy and general psychology (VI century BC - mid-XIX century).

2. Separation of descriptive social psychology from philosophy, sociology and general psychology into an independent field of knowledge (50-60s of the 19th century - 20s of the 20th century).

3. Formalization of social psychology as a science with all its inherent attributes (20s of the 20th century).

The unique date of birth of social psychology is considered to be 1908, when at the same time the works of V. McChougal and E. Ross appeared, the titles of which included the term “social psychology.”

The process of formulating the subject of social psychology can be considered not only chronologically, but also conceptually, or more precisely, in chronological-conceptual terms. This approach is more expedient, since it allows us to consider the process of shaping a scientific subject both over time and within the framework of various scientific SCHOOLS.

Initially, social psychology could not precisely define its subject. Some authors, considering it a branch of sociology, limited social psychology to the tasks of additional psychological interpretation of the phenomena studied by sociologists. Others believed that social psychology is part of general psychology, and its purpose boils down to introducing social amendments into general psychological knowledge. Still others argued that social psychology is an intermediate link between sociology and general psychology. This interpretation of the subject of social psychology is reflected in its position among other sciences. In particular, in the USA, the section of social psychology is part of both the American Sociological Association and the American Psychological Association. A similar situation has developed in domestic social psychology.

It is no coincidence that the defense of dissertations in sociology and social psychology took place within the same scientific specialty. All this suggests that the subject of social psychology has not yet been clearly defined.

Recognition of the fact that social psychology is based, on the one hand, on sociology, on the other hand, on general psychology, does not in any way clarify the understanding of its subject.

In foreign social psychology, each scientific school tried to define its subject in its own way, based on its own understanding of the issue. A unique approach to identifying the main problems of social psychology was shown by representatives of such scientific directions as the psychology of the Imass peoples, the theory of instincts of social behavior and group dynamics, social Darwinism and behaviorism, Gestalt psychology and psychoanalysis, interactionism and cognitivism, existential psychology and transactional analysis, etc. .

In domestic social psychology, several stages can be distinguished that are related to the discussion about its subject. This debate took place most acutely in the 1920s. As a result, a pseudoscientific understanding of social psychology was formed. The fate of domestic social psychology was influenced by the point of view of the founder and director of the psychological institute G.I. Chelpanov, who proposed dividing psychology into two parts: social and psychology proper. Social psychology, in his opinion, should be developed within the framework of Marxism, and psychology itself must remain empirical. Without denying the significance of Marxism for social psychology, it is nevertheless impossible to fetishize it. During these years, representatives of collective reactology and reflexology expressed their understanding of the subject of social psychology. Thus, the subject of collective reflexology was defined as follows: “The study of the emergence, development and activity of meetings and gatherings” that manifest their conciliar correlative activity as a whole thanks to the mutual communication of the individuals included in them with each other.”

In the 50-60s, the discussion about the subject of social psychology was again launched. At that time there were three approaches to solving this issue. Representatives of the first understood social psychology as the science of “mass phenomena of the psyche.” Proponents of the second approach saw personality as its main subject, while others tried to synthesize the two previous ones, that is, they considered social psychology as a science that studies both mass mental processes and the position of the individual in a group.

It is strange, but true, that not a single textbook on social psychology contained a definition of its subject. The authors, as a rule, conscientiously listed the points of view of other scientists on this matter, but they themselves avoided answering the question of what social psychology studies. This was largely due to the fact that social psychologists, for objective reasons, could not speak openly about the subject of their science. They were dominated by the party-class approach, according to which historical materialism and political economy were considered as the leading sciences in the field of studying social phenomena. As for social psychology, it strictly followed historical materialism when considering many issues. She was obliged to “know” her place and specifically engage in the study of social psychology as a phenomenon less significant than ideology. It was no coincidence that she published a brochure entitled “What does social psychology study?” Certain areas of social psychology have turned into a kind of catechism, mythology. This primarily concerned large social groups. Social psychology was mainly studied by studying school groups.

It is clear that the ideological approach limited the subject of Russian psychology and led it away from the study of social phenomena within its sphere of competence.

The definition of the subject of social psychology was greatly complicated by the fact that for a long time it developed as a descriptive science, in line with everyday ideas. Hence, instead of a clear conceptual apparatus in social psychology, a terminological conglomerate has developed based on uncritical borrowing from sociology, general psychology and other sciences. All this clouds the question of the subject of social psychology.

However, the main difficulty is associated with an ambiguous understanding of the paradigm, the unit of analysis.

In psychology, a unit of analysis means a universal concept, a common component of various mental processes. In general psychology, sensation, image, etc. are taken as the unit of analysis. In social psychology, the unit of analysis includes various phenomena.

Some scientists believe that this is a joint activity, others - communication, others - personality, etc.

However, as noted above, “interaction” is considered a universal concept, as a result of which socio-psychological phenomena are formed. Essentially, they are an interaction effect. And it is they who act as the universal concept of social psychology, the unit of its analysis.

Essentially, this is an interactionist approach to explaining socio-psychological phenomena. From the point of view of social psychoanalysis or cognitive psychology, the nature of the latter looks somewhat different. Socio-psychological phenomena cannot be imagined without taking into account the “collective unconscious”, etc. Nevertheless, the role of interaction in their origin is difficult to overestimate.

Socio-psychological phenomena are phenomena that arise as a result of the interaction of subjects (individuals and communities) in certain conditions, reflecting them in various forms, expressing attitudes towards them, motivating and regulating people’s behavior, exchanging messages and experiences, as well as facilitating the organization of both socially useful and criminal activities.

The main socio-psychological phenomena include: communication, opinion and structure, community, stratification, stereotype, conflict, lifestyle, etc. Social psychological phenomena are reflected in the corresponding conceptual apparatus, the Saurus. They are classified on various grounds: content, sustainability, etc.

So, according to their content, they are divided into normal and deformed. The criteria for normal socio-psychological phenomena are their positive, stabilizing influence on the state of politics, economics and society, on the life perceptions and actions of individuals. As for the deformation of socio-psychological phenomena, their differences consist in negative, destabilizing, disorganizing influences. This circumstance creates the preconditions for the creation of extreme social psychology. Depending on the subject of occurrence, the following socio-psychological phenomena are distinguished: interpersonal;

group;

intergroup;

mass-like. Conscious and unconscious socio-psychological phenomena are distinguished.

According to the degree of stability, socio-psychological phenomena are divided into dynamic (for example, various types of communication), dynamic-static (for example, opinions and attitudes) and static (for example, traditions, customs). Usually in dynamics and statics only group phenomena were considered. This tradition goes back to the school of "group dynamics"

K. Levin. Meanwhile, such phenomena are observed not only within small groups.

D. Myers distinguishes American and European social psychology, as well as developing countries.

Russian social psychology was called differently: simply social psychology, social psychology, Marxist social psychology.

Marxist social psychology has a right to exist, but not as the ultimate truth. We can say that Marxist social psychology is one of its versions, but nothing more. There are humanistic, cognitive social psychology, social psychoanalysis, etc. Marxist social psychology should also take its place in this series without claims to a monopoly. It contains a number of methodologically correct formulations of questions about social conflicts, etc.

Social psychology has the right to be called a science if it has the ability to illuminate the patterns of emergence, development and manifestation of social psychological phenomena.

For the first time, A.G. Kovalev tried to formulate the laws of social psychology in “A Course of Lectures on Social Psychology” (M., 1972). However, his attempt cannot generally be considered successful, since the laws of historical materialism were repeated, in particular the law of determination of socio-psychological phenomena (social being determines social consciousness). In 1988, a similar attempt was made by the authors of Theoretical and Applied Social Psychology." But they suffered the same fate. The fact is that in the absence of a sufficiently large body of empirical research, it is almost impossible to determine the patterns of socio-psychological phenomena. In order to derive the law, large-scale research is needed.

Nevertheless, analysis of the available data allows us to draw a preliminary conclusion about some patterns of socio-psychological phenomena. It is too early to talk about a general social psychological theory, since its framework is only being built on the basis of the development of particular theories (social perception, small groups, the functioning of public opinion, stratification, etc.). At the same time, it is now possible to assert with a greater degree of probability that the laws in the field of social psychology have a hierarchical, subordination, nonlinear and closed nature, that socio-psychological phenomena are relatively independent (autonomous) and the approach to explaining their nature is “ S-R" (stimulus-response) is unacceptable. It should be emphasized that socio-psychological phenomena arise and manifest themselves at different levels (macro, average and micro), in different spheres (state, economy, society, individual) and conditions (normal, complicated and extreme).

One of the shortcomings of social psychology is that it tries to determine the patterns of socio-psychological phenomena regardless of the level, sphere and conditions of their occurrence and manifestation. Thus, for a long time it was not taken into account that the formation of public opinion in normal conditions is subject to one pattern, and in extreme conditions - completely different.

Communication acts as the main mechanism for the emergence of socio-psychological phenomena. As a result, personality is formed, small groups and the psychology of broader communities are formed, and changes of varying degrees of complexity occur. If we keep in mind the mechanisms of the emergence and spread of socio-psychological phenomena, then they are divided into those that are deliberately created (rumors, various groups, etc.), as well as spontaneously arising and spreading (fashion, etc.). The universal mechanisms of socio-psychological phenomena include:

imitation - following an example or image;

suggestion is a process of influence associated with a decrease in consciousness and criticality in the perception and implementation of the transmitted content;

contagion is the process of transferring an emotional state from one individual to another;

persuasion is a method of influencing the consciousness of an individual;

identification is the process of unification or, more precisely, identification.

It is these mechanisms that underlie social learning and behavior. A vivid description of one of the mechanisms of socio-psychological phenomena is contained in the famous fairy tale of H. Andersen about the naked king. This fairy tale is an example of conformism, with the help of which mass deception is committed. The fear of not being “like everyone else,” of being punished for disagreeing with the general opinion, preserves the lie and forces one to perceive it as the truth.

Thus, the subject of social psychology is the study of the patterns of emergence, functioning and manifestation of socio-psychological phenomena at the macro, average and micro levels, in various spheres, in normal, complicated and extreme conditions. As a matter of fact, this is the subject of only one of the parts of social psychology - its theoretical field. The subject of applied social psychology consists of the laws of psychodiagnostics, counseling and the use of psychotechnologies in the field of socio-psychological phenomena.

In the future, we will mainly talk only about socio-psychological phenomena that fall within the competence of socio-psychological theory.

§ 2. The structure of socio-psychological theory and its significance Social psychology consists of two parts - theory and practice, and therefore performs the corresponding functions - theoretical and practical. Training courses and textbooks on social psychology are usually called this way, although they do not always have the right to do so. They essentially reflect only the foundations of socio-psychological theory. There were no textbooks on applied social psychology in the generally accepted sense until the publication of such works as “Introduction to Practical Social Psychology” (MSU, 1996) and “Applied Social Psychology” edited by A. N. Sukhov, A. A. Derkach (M., 1998).

Meanwhile, depending on the functions performed, the course and textbooks “Social psychology” should be divided into “Social psychological theory” and “Applied social psychology”.

Social psychological theory cannot be imagined without particular theories, i.e. without such theoretical and applied disciplines as political psychology, ethnopsychology, management psychology, economic psychology, environmental psychology, etc. As for the content of applied social psychology, its “core” is formed by socio-psychological diagnostics, counseling, influence and psychotechnologies in social practice. In this case, socio-psychological theory is like the trunk of the tree of social psychology, and its branches, accordingly, are the listed branches.

The main task of socio-psychological theory is to highlight the main characteristics of socio-psychological phenomena, explain the causes and mechanisms, make forecasts for their development, as well as scientifically disclose and substantiate the essence of methods for providing socio-psychological assistance.

The structure of socio-psychological theory includes the following components: 1) methodology;

2) phenomenology;

3) patterns and mechanisms;

4) theoretical substantiation of praxeology (methods of applying various influences or their combinations from the point of view of their effectiveness). Western social psychology is freer from methodology, instead of which it uses professional “ideology”.

Russian social psychology has long-standing traditions, although not always positive, of interaction with philosophy. And in the past, the development of social psychology was hampered by the excessively rigid framework of a philosophy ossified in its dogmas. Now in the field of philosophy and social psychology the situation has changed dramatically.

The principle of objectivity should be especially emphasized, without which one cannot seriously talk about social psychology as a science. Its roots go back to positivism, which formulated the requirements for the process of cognition of social phenomena.

However, in the humanities, the approach to social phenomena from the standpoint of understanding sociology and psychology is becoming increasingly popular. As the German philosopher and cultural historian V. Dilthey correctly noted, it is not enough to record socio-psychological phenomena; they also need to be “felt” in order to be known. Social psychology requires collaboration with social philosophy and sociology. At the same time, it cannot do without history, just as it is impossible to understand and explain history without social psychology.

The study of any socio-psychological phenomenon (personality, community, social institutions, including political, social and economic) is impossible without taking into account the influence of the cultural and historical context.

In Russia, a similar approach was first used by L. S. Vygotsky, then by B. F. Porshnev and others.

V. A. Shkuratov prepared a doctoral dissertation, in which he substantiated the subject of historical psychology, and then published a textbook of the same name.

Currently, according to V.A. Shkuratov, in psychology there is a transition from natural scientific paradigms to a paradigm (narration, plot thinking, story). It is unlikely that one can completely agree with this. But to exclude this approach means to impoverish social psychology.

Taking into account the cultural and historical context when studying socio-psychological phenomena is important in theoretical and methodological terms.

Culture and its elements are directly related to basic socio-psychological phenomena: mentality, the meaning of life, social values, pictures of the world and social feelings.

In turn, knowledge about the historical and cultural development of socio-psychological phenomena makes it possible to explain the current state of political, social and economic institutions.

As already noted, at present, theoretical and applied branches of social psychology are dealing with problems of power, society and economics: political, ethnic and economic psychology.

At the same time, it should be noted that the subjects of these branches of social psychology are not clearly defined, which is due to the lack of a conceptual approach to defining the subject of political, ethnic and economic psychology. In terms of content, these areas represent rather abstract discussions about the psychological aspects of political leadership, etc. in the absence of specifics.

Modern paradigms of social psychology should become the conceptual basis of theoretical and applied branches of social psychology, namely political, ethnic and economic psychology.

From this point of view, culture and the socio-psychological phenomena associated with it should be placed at the forefront.

In 1952, the book of American cultural scientists A.K. Lieber and K. Klakson “Culture.

A critical review of concepts and definitions." It contains more than 150 definitions of culture.

B. S. Erasov identifies five basic definitions of culture:

1) culture as a special sphere and form of activity associated with thinking, etc.;

2) culture as the general level of development of society;

3) culture as the sum of social achievements;

4) culture as a specific system of norms, values ​​and meanings that distinguishes one society from another;

5) culture as the spiritual dimension of any activity.

Culture is represented by such socio-psychological phenomena as mentality, meanings (the meaning of life, life plans and goals), social values, motivational sphere, “I” and cognitive characteristics (pictures of the world, stereotypes, self-esteem, self-attitude), the concepts of “We” and “They”, socio-psychological competence, conflicts, social feelings and emotions, communication: language, style, dialect features, etc.

There is a relationship between elements of culture and socio-psychological phenomena; in some cases, there are practically no boundaries between them.

The history of social psychology began with the study of myths, customs, language, i.e. psychological, historical, ethnopsychological phenomena, conducting cross-cultural, comparative studies.

But later, the passion for positivism without taking into account the historical and cultural context when conducting research led to a crisis in social psychology. This manifested itself both in theory and in practice. Back in 1880, M. Zabylin was the compiler of the book “Russian Parod. Its customs, rituals, legends and poetry” wrote: “When giving lectures on Russian history in our educational institutions, teachers of this subject say little about the customs and image/life of our ancestors, which is why the everyday side of our people in whose past is almost lost to us . Meanwhile, archaeological and ethnographic research shows us traces and remains of customs, rituals and way of life of the people. In fairy tales, epics, beliefs, songs there is a lot of truth about our native antiquity, and their poetry conveys the entire national character, with its customs and concepts.”

The object of social psychoanalysis is the sphere of the unconscious, but in relation to specific social subjects: individuals, groups, ethnic groups, nations, people based on the study of the “collective unconscious” (K. Jung) and the “social unconscious” (E. Fromm). This also includes studies of the structure of the mental life of society (“the psychology of people’s life”, “the soul of the people”, “the soul of Russia”). Social psychoanalysis can be used mainly as a method of interpreting socio-psychological phenomena.

The picture of the world is a complex multi-level fabric, which, along with scientific, conceptual knowledge, includes religious experience, virtual constructs of art, ideology, and deep layers of the mythological and collective unconscious in the spirit of C. Jung.

In psychology, the study of the picture of the world, including its political aspect, is intensively developing within the framework of the psychosemantic approach. In psychosemantics, the paradigm of constructivism is implemented, where the picture of the world is interpreted not as a mirror reflection of reality, but as one of the possible “biased” cultural and historical models of the world that is created by an individual or collective subject. In this regard, psychosemantics stands on the position of recognizing the multiplicity of possible models of the world, the pluralism of truth and, as a consequence, the multiplicity of development paths for an individual, society, country, and all humanity.

J. Kelly introduced the concept of personal construct as an element of this constructive system at the level of the individual. This term can be expanded in relation to social consciousness, which has absorbed personal constructs that have become the property of culture.

Phenomenology should include both general and specific theories of socio-psychological phenomena, namely: the theory of socio-psychological phenomena at the micro, average and macro levels. As for the relationship between social psychology and falsely understood ideology, the former should remain neutral, while the latter should give way to the professional ethics of social psychologists.

The question of ideologization is not idle. One can argue about the content of ideology, but it is naive to believe that any society and humanities can do without it. Until recently, historical materialism categorically acted as a true theory. It was this circumstance that reduced socio-psychological theory to a “semi-finished product”, and all socio-psychological phenomena required a materialistic justification.

In the USA, in 1990, the National Association of Social Workers adopted a code of ethics that sets out the basic principles of a social worker’s activities, in particular: impeccable behavior and competence, moral responsibility to the client, colleagues, employer, one’s profession and society.

In domestic psychology, an ethical code has also been developed and adopted. Its essence is that the fundamental principle of domestic social psychology should be the principle of humanism: ensuring personal growth, self-actualization of the “I,” increasing universal human values, i.e. The criterion for evaluating theory and socio-psychological practice must be the thesis: “Man is the measure of all things.” However, one cannot deny or discount the role of political, ideological and economic conditions. One should not ignore a whole series of provisions formulated by K. Marx and his followers regarding the determinants that determine the essence of socio-psychological phenomena. At the same time, it must be said that the methodology of Russian socio-psychological theory for more than seventy years was ideology, which turned from a once living teaching into a set of dogmas.

The consequence of pseudo-methodology was a distortion of the content and structure of social psychological theory. Thus, instead of analyzing the real differentiation of society, only its class structure was studied - the working class, peasantry and intelligentsia, and instead of studying the widest range of communities - collectives. Ultimately, this has led to the society in which we live being unexplored.

The militant and one-sidedly developed methodology led to the absurd division of social psychology into bourgeois and Marxist, while we should have been talking about foreign and domestic social psychology. The ideological separation of social psychology entailed restrictions in the field of theory, the creation of a deformed and at the same time refined, filtered psychological thesaurus, the content of which was reduced to the formula: “Everything is bad for them - everything is good for us.”

Currently, critical social psychology is gaining strength, trying to correct the ideologized conceptual apparatus, to transform descriptive social psychology into an explanatory one, which has a developing, but quite strict conceptual apparatus, clearly formulated tasks that it is designed to solve, its own system of methods, a well-thought-out procedure for planning and coordinating scientific research.

Paradoxically, despite the abundance of publications on methodological problems in the recent past, domestic socio-psychological theory found itself on a kind of starvation ration. The long-term competition for ideological purity in research gave rise in domestic social psychology to the monopoly of individual schools and directions, expressed in a one-sided view of socio-psychological phenomena and the factors that determined their main characteristics.

Such academic theories turned out to be stillborn. None of them ever “worked” in practice. However, quite a few representatives of these pseudo-theories rushed into social practice and, forgetting about the principles of their schools, went into business. It is clear that such eclecticism, based on a mechanical combination of various theories and practical techniques, discredits social psychology as a science.

Thus, the situation now is such that it is still premature to speak about generalizations of social psychological theory.

It does not have a single paradigm. None of the existing socio-psychological theories, based on this parameter, can claim this status.

Theories of social institutions, organizations, group dynamics, neurolinguistic programming, psychoanalytic, cognitivist, behaviorist, psychosynthetic, interactionist, the theory of Gestalt psychology and others are not a universal explanatory model. They are of a private nature and theoretically serve only a certain range of socio-psychological phenomena. Some explain the patterns of the emergence and course of socio-psychological phenomena, others focus on revealing the mechanisms of their interaction, and others serve applied areas of psychology: diagnostics, counseling and influence techniques. This division of spheres of application of these theories is legitimate. However, unfortunately, the fact of specialization of the theory is not always taken into account, which leads to curious consequences.

Attempts to give any theory the rank of a general, universal theory took place both in domestic and foreign social psychology. In this case, we mean activity-based, stratometric approaches, as well as psychoanalysis and other theories. These theories have their own specific object: applications. Outside these boundaries, they turn into quasi-theories, far-fetched, artificial constructions that their creators try to impose on all socio-psychological phenomena without exception and explain them. With the destruction of ideological dogmas, the paradigms that relied on them also collapsed. A vacuum was formed, an unfilled methodological niche. The flow of translated literature immediately increased. As a result, theoretical social psychology in its content began to represent a conglomerate of knowledge. A deeply thought-out integration of everything valuable, which, undoubtedly, is in each of these theories, has not yet been carried out.

If we talk about the valuable that was accumulated thanks to a peculiar theoretical fashion, then this happened mainly through the identification and scientific illumination of phenomenology at the micro level. The theories of social conflicts, interethnic relations, and the psychology of power were almost not developed. Moreover, the empirical basis for socio-psychological theory was created mainly within the walls of scientific institutions and educational institutions, in particular, as a result of studying students.

As social and psychological services were deployed in enterprises and other areas, applied social psychology grew stronger. Recently, a kind of boom has been observed in the field of applied socio-psychological research. Numerous centers for applied socio-psychological research have emerged in Russia: public opinion, interethnic conflicts, etc. However, the lack of theory depreciates their practical significance. The applied function of social psychology cannot be considered in isolation from theory. Numerous public opinion polls conducted that are not united by any theoretical structure are unproductive.

With the formation of the Association of Practical Psychology, the division between theorists and practicing psychologists (and later within the latter) increased. In this regard, it should be noted that it is impossible to deny the importance of empirical research and the provision of psychological assistance. However, without developing a good theory, the value of all this is greatly reduced. Scientific traditions, orientations, and culture play an important role here.

The importance of the theoretical basis of praxeology has also increased significantly.

The lack of a solid theoretical basis not only reduces the effectiveness of socio-psychological diagnostics, counseling and influence, but often discredits them.

Interpretation of data should not be carried out without taking into account the theories that underlie the techniques used. Otherwise, and this happens quite often, the authority of social psychology is undermined.

As for the practice of influence, the same motley picture is observed here as in socio-psychological theory. In an effort to make up for lost time and opportunities, social psychologists are hastily studying in courses to master the technologies of Ericksonian hypnosis, neurolinguistic programming, transactional analysis, meditation, zombification, etc.

At the heart of the craze for applied areas is the desire to be at the level of world standards, and often a penchant for everything sensational and extraordinary. Therefore, it is no coincidence that most social psychologists in our country are not professionals and do not work within the framework of any fundamental scientific school.

The low productivity of many applied socio-psychological areas, in particular group psychotherapy, is quite obvious. Nevertheless, psychological shows are successful and generate a lot of income, unlike studies in social psychological theory. But “growing pains” should not discredit applied social psychology. The boom seen today will pass. Along with it, the unprofessional and superficial approach used for purely commercial purposes will sink into oblivion.

The humane essence of applied social psychology must remain. This can only be guaranteed by professional ideology and the high general culture of psychologists.

The need for socio-psychological theory has recently been increasing due to changes taking place in society, in the spheres of economics, national relations, ecology, etc. All this is accompanied by socio-psychological changes: revaluation of values, breaking stereotypes, social stress, loss the meaning of life, dehumanization of relationships, changes in role behavior, status, sharp differentiation of society, ethnopolitical conflicts. The extreme situation in society, the unusual content and dynamics of the processes taking place in it, global changes in people’s lives have a comprehensive impact on their psyche. Relationships in the family, small and large groups are undergoing a radical breakdown. The problem of mental ill-health in society has become real.

There is an expansion of the state and society, their various institutions into the area of ​​the intimate, personal through the media. Cognitive dissonance has become an attribute of many sectors of society. The transition from social guarantees and programs in the areas of employment, education, and health care to personal responsibility is accompanied by tension. Not everyone can adapt to market relations. All this puts forward completely new tasks for socio-psychological theory, the main ones of which are the following:

1. Theoretical understanding of the place and role of man in a changing world;

identification of socio-psychological characteristics of personality, its most common types in modern conditions in order to develop an acceptable model of personality.

2. Study of the entire diversity of relationships and communication, including their deformation in connection with the establishment of a new system of values ​​in our society and changes in forms of ownership.

3. Development of a socio-psychological view of the nature of the state, politics, economy and society based on an objective analysis of social institutions and communities, their real significance for the individual.

4. Development of theories of social conflicts (political, interstate, ethnic, criminal, etc.).

5. Development of theoretical foundations for socio-political diagnostics, counseling and assistance (mental hygiene, social rehabilitation, psychoprophylaxis, group psychotherapy, training, education, psychological education, role-playing games). Along with the need for theoretical illumination of these problems, socio-psychological science should not remain indifferent to solving the problems of organized crime. The development of signs and the organization of the fight against crime is impossible without recourse to socio-psychological theory. The latter helps to understand the mechanisms of individual, group and mass criminal behavior, analyze conflicts and strikes, as well as establish psychological contacts, trusting relationships with various categories of the population, negotiate for the release of hostages, and exert influence in order to suppress mass excesses. Socio-psychological theory also allows us to take a completely different look at the nature of the institution of punishment and identify its potential socio-rehabilitative capabilities.

Section II SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY Chapter SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF PERSONALITY § 1. Specifics of the socio-psychological approach to understanding personality Currently, a number of approaches to understanding personality have developed: 1) biological;

2) sociological;

3) individual psychological;

4) socio-psychological, etc. In accordance with the first approach, personality development represents the deployment of a genetic program. Essentially, this is a fatal approach to personality, recognition of the inevitability of a person’s fate.

From the point of view of the sociological approach, personality is a product of cultural and historical development. In this regard, it is appropriate to quote K. Marx that “personality is not an abstraction inherent in an individual, in its reality it is the totality of social relations.” The main disadvantage of this approach is that in this case the personality is deprived of activity and subjectivity.

From the point of view of the individual psychological approach, personality development is influenced by such features as human constitution, type of nervous system, etc. Here it is important to distinguish between similar but non-identical concepts: “individual”, “person”, “personality”.

The individual is a concept that is studied within the framework of psychogenetics, psychophysics, differential psychology and other fields.

Man is a biosocial concept. Both in the psychological and legal sense it is broader than the concept of “personality”. K.K. Platonov said that “personality is a person as a bearer of consciousness.”

In the West, the branch of psychology that studies personality is called personology. The fact is that in English a person is a person.

The etymology of the word “personality” helps to understand the socio-psychological nature of the concept. In Russian, the word “personality” means a guise, i.e. mask. This circumstance emphasizes what is typical in a person, which allows us to talk about it as a sociotype, an archetype.

The specifics of the socio-psychological approach to understanding personality are as follows:

1) it explains the mechanisms of personality socialization;

2) reveals its socio-psychological structure;

3) allows you to diagnose a given structure of personality characteristics and influence it.

The socio-psychological structure of the individual includes: mentality, value-semantic sphere, motivational sphere (direction, life goals, plans, life path), cognitive characteristics (pictures of the world);

“I-characteristics” (“I-concept”, “I-image”, self-attitude, self-esteem);

locus of control;

socio-psychological competence of the individual;

status-role characteristics of the individual;

emotional mental states, social feelings of the individual.

§ 2. Characteristics of socio-psychological theories of personality There are various socio-psychological theories of personality: American, European, Eastern, domestic. Among them we can distinguish psychodynamic, behavioristic, cognitive, humanistic, role theories of personality, Maslow’s theory of self-actualization of the “I”, theories of the mirror “I” (“I-concept”), and existential ones.

The content of these theories is described in more detail in the book by A. Kjell and D. Ziegler “Theories of Personality” (St. Petersburg, 1997).

Among the domestic socio-psychological theories of personality we can highlight: the theory of relationships by V.N. Myasishchev, the theory of attitude by D.N. Uznadze, the dispositional theory of personality, the personality structure of K.K. Platonov, the theory of integral individuality.

These theories allow us to talk about personality not only as an individual, but also as a typical socio-psychological phenomenon.

Recently, an acmeological approach to the study of personality has been actively developed (acme is the pinnacle in the development of an adult). The greatest contribution to the development of this understanding of personality was made by psychologists such as A. A. Bodalev, A. A. Derkach, P. V. Kuzmina and others.

One of the important areas of socio-psychological analysis of personality types, in particular behavior in society, is comparison in terms of the relationships of some people to others. American psychologist A. Maslow, in his works on self-actualization of the “I,” repeatedly emphasized that one person can relate to another as to himself, and this other can perceive the people around him in the same way as he perceives things, and treat them accordingly.

Having specified this statement by A. Maslow, the American scientist E. Shostrom called the first type of personality an actualizer, and the second a manipulator. Investigating the mental properties that actualizers, on the one hand, and manipulators, on the other, exhibit in both business and interpersonal communication, E. Shostrom discovered in the former honesty and sincerity in relationships with people, a consistently demonstrated interest in them, independence and confidentiality in expressing their position, believing in themselves and in those with whom they communicate. In the latter, he found carefully disguised falsehood in contacts with people, imitation of experiences with actual indifference to people, deliberate prudence in the selection of means of influencing them, and again carefully hidden cynicism in relation to the basic values ​​of life and culture.

Without denying the existence in life of socio-psychological personality types, which in some situations behave as actualizers, and in others - as manipulators, E. Shostrom evaluates pronounced actualizers as integral, original people. Manipulators, in his opinion, push their originality deep into the depths and repeat, copy, replicate someone else's behavioral models. Comparing manipulators who adopted such models, he identified differences between them, affecting the characteristic attitude of each of them both towards himself and towards other people, and most importantly, the form of expression of this attitude in everyday behavior. Based on this, E. Shostrom identified eight types of manipulators, which he designated as “dictator”, “rag”, “calculator”, “stuck”, “hooligan”, “nice guy”, “judge”, “defender”.

For the first, according to the observations of E. Shostrom, when communicating with people, an openly forceful manner of behavior is characteristic, for the second - a seemingly endless game of giveaway, for the third - cold prudence, for the fourth - imitation of defenselessness and constant need for care, for the fifth - terrorizing others in their interests, for the sixth - playing a “friend” person, for the seventh - demonstrating an accusatory position towards the objects of manipulation, for the eighth - hypocritically playing the role of their defender, but again with the goal of getting what they want from them.

It seems that the description of the main characteristics of actualizers and manipulators by E.

Shostrom is also applicable to our reality. The outstanding German-American psychologist E. Fromm back in the 50s of the 20th century. argued that when society is focused on the consumer knowledge market, manipulating it becomes the primary task of the moment. According to the scientist, the desire to manipulate people logically follows from market manipulation.

The belonging of each of them to one or another group requires behavior that is taken for granted in society, so to speak, socially normal for a representative of this group - a man, a teacher, a husband, a father, etc. By demonstrating such behavior, a person constantly acts as a bearer of a social role or several social roles simultaneously. Sociologist I. S. Kon, specifying this position, writes: “An individual’s membership in a group is expressed in certain functions (roles), which define his responsibilities and rights in relation to the group. The expectations that determine the general contours of a social role do not depend on the consciousness and behavior of a particular individual: they are given to him as something external, more or less obligatory, and their subject is not the individual, but society or some specific social group” (Kon I.S. Sociology of personality. - M., 1967. - P. 23).

A role is the expected behavior determined by a person's status. There are impersonal (social) and interpersonal roles. Interacting with each other in study, work, in everyday life and performing various roles, for example, teacher, banker, investigator, mother, people remain individuals. Therefore, any social role does not presuppose absolutely identical behavioral stereotypes for all in its implementation. She always leaves the opportunity for the performer to show his individuality. As a result, social relationships become interpersonal or, as V.N. called them. Myasishchev, psychological.

The result of the influence on a person from other people (communities) depends not only on the characteristics of the latter, but also on what kind of relationships this person has already managed to “acquire”, what needs, interests, inclinations lie behind these relationships, and also whether These people have their own characteristics, needs, interests, and personality inclinations. It is this last parameter that primarily determines the sign and magnitude of the subjective significance of another person or community for the individual, the result of their influence on it.

It is clear that the result of the influence of these factors, which is assessed by such indicators as character (content), breadth, depth, stability, effectiveness, cannot be the same for all people. If a person with whom a person has constant contacts, or a community to which he belongs, is positively significant and very authoritative for him, then, according to the research of E. B. Starovoytenko, they have a strong impact on the internal development of the personality, on his self-movement and the emergence of new value dominants in it. The influence coming from authoritative and significant people (communities) for the individual, encouraging the individual to introspection and self-reflection, allows one to see oneself not only in the present, but also in the future, to build and implement programs of movement towards this future.

Acquiring greater or lesser autonomy in its development and reaching a higher level of socio-psychological maturity, a person can outgrow certain communities of which he was previously a member, search for communities and create ones that, with their characteristics, would meet his increased needs. .

It should be noted that as a result of the influence of an individual on an individual or a community on an individual, the latter’s advancement does not always occur along a progressive path of development. After all, her needs, interests and inclinations can also be of a negative nature, and then she experiences an attraction to people (communities) similar to herself.

Thus, the individual’s attitude to external influences is characterized by selectivity and, as a rule, an unconventional nature of cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses to them.

The content of people’s activities, either as a whole or in its individual components, as a rule, is, to varying degrees, adequate to their characteristics. This is due to the broad social and cultural context in which people’s lives take place, and the exchange of various types of activities between them. At the same time, a person accumulates impressions about himself that help him answer the questions: “Who am I?”, “Why am I like this?”, “What can and should I achieve and how?”

A deeper penetration into the “I-concept” makes it possible to discover in it, on the one hand, the real “I” (the way a person displays himself, relates to himself and treats himself), on the other, the ideal “I” (whatever he wanted to become, focusing on moral norms), the dynamic “I” (what he strives and tries to become), the fantastic “I” (what he would like to become if this were possible under especially favorable conditions). It should be noted that people differ very much from each other in the “distances” separating their real, ideal, dynamic and fantastic “I”. However, they differ just as much from each other in the degree of dominance of their “I” over others - “You” and “You” - in situations of interaction and making joint decisions.

Considering the characteristics of the “I”, one cannot help but notice that some people have their “I”

have greater autonomy in relation to external influences and a greater ability to distance themselves from the experiences that arise in response to these influences. For others, their self distances itself poorly or not at all from these experiences. As a result, the former have the ability for self-regulation and self-control, while the latter have this ability very weakly expressed or completely absent.

The psychoanalytic approach of S. Freud (1856-1939) to understanding personality The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, had a revolutionary influence on all psychotherapy and psychiatry. We can say that he opened a new era in these sciences and had a huge influence on the entire Western culture.

Z. Freud was a consistent determinist; he believed that everything in mental life has its own cause, every mental event is caused by conscious or unconscious intention and is determined by previous events. His main merit is that he was the first to introduce into science the concept of the unconscious and created methods for working with unconscious motives.

He identified three spheres of the psyche: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious. It is in the unconscious that the main determinants of personality are located - mental energy, drives and instincts. There are two basic instincts: libido, or the desire for sexual satisfaction, and the instinct of aggression and the desire for death. In the personality structure, according to Freud, there are also three main components: It (Id), I (Ego) and Super-I (Super-Ego). There is no exact correlation between the levels of consciousness and the components of the personality, but as far as the id is concerned, this basic, original and central part of the personality is almost entirely unconscious. It includes psychic forms that were never conscious, and those that turned out to be unacceptable to consciousness and were repressed from it. The id does not know values, good and evil, does not know morality.

I (Ego), on the one hand, follows unconscious instincts, and on the other, obeys the demands of reality. This part of the personality is responsible for voluntary behavior, can control and suppress instincts, strives to reduce tension and increase pleasure.

The super-ego develops from the Ego and serves as a repository of moral principles, norms of behavior, and is the judge and censor of the activities and thoughts of the Ego. Motives, thoughts, etc. that do not correspond to the norms imposed by the Super-ego are repressed into the area of ​​the unconscious or preconscious.

The concept of repression or suppression of motives undesirable from the point of view of the superego, proposed by Freud, is used in one form or another in almost any modern area of ​​psychotherapy.

To prevent the repressed material from entering consciousness again, the “I” uses various methods of defense. Freud pointed mainly to such forms of defense as rationalization, sublimation, projection and avoidance.

However, despite the presence of protection, repressed desires (they are mainly associated with sexual experiences) break into consciousness in the form of dreams, fantasies, “accidental” slips, unexpected actions, etc. Suppressed motives continue to operate and significantly influence human behavior. Moreover, they intensify and go beyond the control of consciousness.

When a strong but suppressed motive breaks into consciousness, a person may fall into a hysterical attack or have other neurotic reactions. According to Freud, the causes of any neurosis lie in memories of one or another traumatic situation, usually associated with sexual feelings that are unacceptable from the standpoint of moral principles. For example, there are known cases of hysteria in girls associated with sexual assault by their father.

Freud attached great importance to childhood sexual experiences. The Oedipus complex he proposed is well known, the basis of which is the boy’s forbidden love for his own mother and hence hatred of his own father. In his psychosexual development, a person goes through various phases, which Freud discussed in detail in the context of character formation and future psychological problems of the individual. “Stuck” in one of these phases (oral, anal, phallic and genital) can persist in an unconscious form into adulthood.

In all cases of neurotic disorders, it turns out that libidinal energy is “incorrectly” attached (cathected) to the image of a particular person, idea or thing. Psychoanalysis helps to release miscathected energy, which can be used more positively.

Psychoanalysis of Carl Jung (1875-1961) The Swiss scientist C. Jung proposed the idea of ​​the existence, along with the individual unconscious, of a collective unconscious, the content of which is the so-called archetypes, i.e. certain general forms of mental representations, filled in the course of individual life with personal emotional and figurative content. The collective unconscious exists in the thoughts of each individual, it is collective because it is the same for many people and thereby unites them into peoples, nations and humanity as a whole. The contents of the collective unconscious are called archetypes because they are forms of mental realities coming from ancient times, reflected in the mythology of a particular people, and also because they are of a fairly generalized, abstract nature, concretized in the individual life of a person. For example, the mother archetype has some generalized features of a given people, different from the features attributed to the mother of other peoples.

There is also a more generalized archetype of the mother - the same for all humanity. In the life of an individual, it is filled with specific emotional and figurative content associated with the relationship with his own mother.

Jung identifies several basic (for understanding the structure of personality) archetypes: Persona, Ego, Shadow, Anima and Animus, Self.

A persona is how we present ourselves to the world: the character we adopt, our social roles, the clothes we choose to wear, our individual style of expression.

The ego is the center of consciousness and creates a sense of consistency and direction in our conscious lives.

The shadow is the center of the personal unconscious, in which material that has been repressed from consciousness is concentrated. It includes tendencies, desires, memories and experiences that are denied by the individual as incompatible with his persona or contrary to social standards and ideals.

Anima and animus are ideal unconscious structures that reflect the idea of ​​femininity and masculinity, respectively. All relationships with the opposite sex are influenced by these archetypes.

The Self is the central archetype of order and integrity of the individual. According to Jung, consciousness and the unconscious are not necessarily opposed to each other, they complement each other, forming a wholeness that is the self.

From Jung’s point of view, the famous Oedipus complex, which was not accidentally reflected in ancient mythology, is also an archetype.

Another of Jung's most famous ideas was the concept of introversion and extroversion, which characterize a person whose energy is primarily directed towards either the inner or outer world. No one is a pure introvert or extrovert, but each individual is more inclined towards one of these orientations.

Psychoanalysis of Alfred Adler (1870-1937) The basic principles of the Austrian psychiatrist A. Adler are holism (integrity), the unity of the individual lifestyle, social interest or public feeling and the orientation of behavior towards achieving a goal. Adler argued that goals and expectations influence human behavior more than past experiences, and everyone's actions are motivated primarily by the goals of superiority and mastery of the environment.

A. Adler introduced the term “inferiority complex,” believing that all children experience a feeling of inferiority due to their small physical size and lack of strength and capabilities.

The feeling of inferiority causes a desire for superiority, which directs thoughts and actions towards the “goal of victory.” Adler emphasized the importance of aggression and the struggle for power in human life. However, he understood aggression not as a desire for destruction, but as a strong initiative in overcoming obstacles. Later, Adler considered aggression and the will to power as manifestations of a more general motive - the desire for superiority and self-improvement, i.e. motivation to improve oneself, develop one's abilities and potential.

The goal of superiority can be either positive or negative. If it presupposes social concerns and interest in the well-being of others, then we can talk about the constructive and healthy development of the individual. This is expressed in the desire for growth, for the development of skills and abilities, for work for a more perfect life. However, some people strive for personal superiority; they seek to dominate others, to humiliate them, rather than to become useful to others. According to Adler, the struggle for personal superiority is a neurotic spin, the result of a strong feeling of inferiority and lack of social interest.

Self-improvement is impossible without the formation of specific life goals.

This process begins in childhood as compensation for feelings of inferiority, insecurity, uncertainty and helplessness in the adult world. For example, many doctors chose their profession as children as a means of coping with feelings of insecurity and fear of death. In a neurotic there is always a very significant discrepancy between conscious goals and unconscious ones (playing the role of defenses), which revolve around fantasies of personal superiority and self-esteem.

Each person chooses his own life style, i.e. a unique way of following your life purpose. Habits and behaviors that seem independent from each other acquire unity in the context of the individual's life and goals, so that psychological and emotional problems cannot be considered in isolation, but are included in the overall lifestyle.

A. Adler emphasized the creative, active nature of the individual in shaping his own life, as well as the social nature of human behavior. He spoke about a sense of community, a feeling of kinship with all humanity.

One of the most important aspects of social feeling is the development of cooperative behavior. Adler believed that only through cooperation with others can we overcome our actual inferiority or feelings of inferiority. A constructive striving for excellence plus a strong social sense and cooperation are the main characteristics of a healthy individual.

Behaviorist approach to understanding personality The word “behaviorism” comes from the English behavior - behavior. Behaviorism uses two basic concepts to explain behavior: stimulus (5) and response (R), consciousness and other subjective concepts are denied. Proponents of behaviorism tend to deal only with observable facts. In this sense, behavior, no matter how complex it may be, can be studied like any other observable phenomenon.

The American psychologist, leader of behaviorism B. Skinner views personality as an isolated self, which has no place in the scientific analysis of behavior. Personality is defined by him as the sum of behavior patterns. A pattern of behavior is a certain holistic set of behavioral reactions. Different situations produce different response patterns.

Each individual reaction is based solely on previous experience and genetic history.

If I. Pavlov discovered the mechanism for the formation of conditioned reactions when an unconditioned reflex is combined with some conditioned signal, then B. Skinner significantly expanded this scheme, proposing a model of the so-called operant conditioning - rewarding for desired reactions and punishment for undesirable reactions. A reinforcing stimulus is given after the desired reactions have been obtained, which helps reinforce them and repeat them. Punishment (or negative reinforcement) reduces the likelihood of certain reactions. Positive and negative reinforcing stimuli regulate and control behavior.

Primary reinforcers are direct physical rewards. Secondary reinforcers are neutral stimuli that are associated with primary reinforcers so that they themselves begin to act as rewards. Money or the promise of money is one example of a secondary reinforcer.

An autonomous person, freedom, dignity, creativity, from the point of view of B. Skinner, are only fictions; he also denies the spontaneity of behavior and its sources that lie outside life experience.

Skinner is more interested in controlling behavior than in predicting it. He believes that “we cannot make wise decisions if we continue to pretend that human behavior is uncontrollable, or if we refuse to manage when valuable results could be achieved. Such measures only weaken us, leaving the power of science in the hands of others. The first step to protection against tyranny is to discover as much as possible the technique of control..."

Understanding personality from the perspective of humanistic psychology Positive forces aimed at health and growth are naturally inherent in the body. The founder of humanistic psychology, C. Rogers, believed that in each of us there is a desire to become as competent and capable as biologically possible for us.

A decisive role in a person’s life and development is played by his self-image, his “I-concept”. A person, according to Rogers, tends to act in accordance with what he thinks about himself, especially since he cannot judge what he “really” is like. There is no objective image of oneself that can be used as a standard. However, there are actual life experiences that may contradict the established “I-concept”. And then, according to Rogers, incongruence (i.e., inconsistency, contradiction) arises between the self-image and actual experience. This discrepancy can be resolved either by changing behavior, leading to a change in actual experience, or by modifying the self-image. Rogers posits a natural tendency to resolve this internal conflict in a positive way. He is convinced that the tendency towards health is enhanced by interpersonal relationships in which one of the participants is free from incongruence and is capable of self-correction. Self-acceptance is a prerequisite for more genuine and easier acceptance of others. At the same time, being accepted by others is an opportunity to accept yourself more readily. This cycle of self-correction and self-strengthening is the main way of personal growth.

A. Maslow, one of the founders of humanistic psychology, connected all his work with problems of personal growth and development. He made significant theoretical and practical contributions to the creation of an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, which actually denied creativity, love, altruism and other great values ​​of humanity. He believed that psychoanalysis 3.

Freud presents us with a sick part of the psyche that needs to be supplemented with a healthy part.

The central concept for humanistic psychology is self-actualization.

i A. Maslow began by studying outstanding people who seemed to him the most mentally healthy and creative. This list includes Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, Albert Einstein, Franklin Roosevelt, Albert Schweitzer and others.

A. Maslow names the following characteristics of a self-actualizing personality:

1. More effective perception of reality and a more comfortable attitude towards it.

2. Acceptance of yourself, others, nature.

3. Spontaneity, simplicity, naturalness.

4. Task-centered (as opposed to self-centered).

5. Some isolation and need for solitude.

6. Autonomy, independence from culture and environment.

7. Constant freshness of the assessment.

8. Interpersonality and experience of higher states.

9. A sense of belonging, unity with others.

10. Deeper interpersonal relationships.

11. Democratic character structure.

12. Distinguishing between means and ends, good and evil.

13. Philosophical non-hostile sense of humor.

14. Self-actualizing creativity.

A. Maslow noted that self-actualizing individuals are by no means perfect; they can also experience frustration, irritation, be contentious, self-centered, angry, or experience depression. Self-actualization is not an escape from problems, but a movement from apparent and simple problems to real and complex problems.

A. Maslow describes eight ways of an individual’s self-actualization:

1. Fully and wholeheartedly experiencing a life situation with heightened awareness and interest.

2. The desire for personal growth in every life choice, even if it is associated with risk, especially with the risk of being in the unknown.

3. Become real, exist in fact, and not just in potential.

4. Honesty and taking responsibility for your actions. Answers to the questions that arise must be sought within oneself.

5. Development of the ability to make “best life choices”, the ability to trust your judgments and intuition, and act in accordance with THEM.

6. Development of your potential capabilities.

7. The desire for the “peak of experience,” when we are more fully aware of ourselves, think, act and feel clearly and accurately.

8. Discovering your “defenses” and working to abandon them.

Another cardinal idea of ​​A. Maslow was the concept of a hierarchy of fundamental needs that develop from lower to higher. These are physiological needs (food, water, sleep, etc.), the need for security, the need for love and belonging, the need for esteem, the need for self-actualization.

Understanding personality from the point of view of transactional analysis German psychologist Eric Bern postulates three possible states of a person’s “I”: Parent, Adult and Child. A person in the process of interaction (transaction) with another at each moment of time detects one of these states. This can be explained this way:

1. Each person had parents, and everyone, regardless of age, stores within himself a set of “I” states that repeat the “I” states of his parents (as he perceived them).

The textbook outlines socio-psychological theory and the main directions of applied social psychology from a modern perspective.

The socio-psychological theories of personality, the system of relationships and communication, social tension and conflicts, the nature of social influences are considered, characteristics of social institutions and communities are given, and the foundations of socio-psychological diagnostics, influence and counseling are revealed.

About the author: Derkach Anatoly Alekseevich - Honored Scientist Russian Federation, full member of the Russian Academy of Education and a number of Russian public academies, member of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Education, Doctor of Psychology, Professor, Academician-Secretary of the Department of Psychology and Developmental Physiology Russian Academy education. more…

Also read with the book “Social Psychology”:

Preview of the book “Social Psychology”

Social psychology: textbook

Lyudmila Vasilievna Lebedeva Social psychology

Preface

Social psychology has a long history associated with the names of great thinkers of the past, scientific researchers of the present, as well as ordinary people. Social psychology is a science and practice that studies the laws and patterns of the relationship between the individual and the social, their mutual influence in various sociocultural contexts. It presents various aspects of the interaction of people in social groups

The textbook on social psychology is the result of my many years of apprenticeship with wonderful scientists and people significant to me: Yuri Mikhailovich Fedorov and Vadim Borisovich Olshansky, who at one time influenced my professional path. They opened up a world of knowledge about the secrets of human relationships with unforgettable lectures, books and conversations about the problems of social psychology, the meanings and values ​​of human life.

I express my gratitude to V.I. Bakshtanovsky, who allowed me to study problems that were interesting to me during my postgraduate years, and to S.I. Babitskaya, who offered to teach a course in social psychology to the first psychology students at the Tyumen Institute for Advanced Training of Pedagogical Courses in the 1980s-1990s ., beloved students and just students who participated in dialogues in class, E. L. Dotsenko, who convinced him to write this work, Yu. P. Kovalevskaya and E. V. Shaforost for technical assistance in preparing the text of the manual.

I hope that the material contained in the manual will be useful to you, the readers.

I wish you success and interesting discoveries.

Theoretical materials

Section I
Introduction to Social Psychology

Main questions of the section. History of the formation of socio-psychological ideas. The emergence and development of social psychology abroad. Development of social psychology in our country. The place of science in the system of scientific knowledge. Social psychology as a science that studies “the patterns of behavior and activity of people determined by their inclusion in social groups, as well as the social characteristics of these groups themselves” (G. M. Andreeva). Basic paradigms of social psychology. History of Western social psychology. "American" and "European" traditions. The origins of social psychology in the West - studies by W. Wundt, M. Lazarus, G. Steinthal, G. Lebon, G. Tarda. The main theoretical orientations in world social psychology: neo-Freudianism, neo-behaviorism, symbolic interactionism, cognitive orientation. Social and psychological views of 3. Freud, E. Erikson, B. Skinner, A. Maslow. Sociometric, psychodynamic, humanistic and other directions in social psychology.

The main periods of development of domestic social psychology, their brief characteristics. The contribution of philosophers and sociologists N.K. Mikhailovsky, G.V. Plekhanov and others to the formation of social psychology.

Development of socio-psychological issues in Russia. Controversy on the subject of social psychology in the 1920s. years (positions of K. I. Kornilov, V. V. Blonsky, V. M. Bekhterev, V. V. Artemov, M. S. Raisner, etc.). Social psychology in the works of A. S. Makarenko. The influence of Russian psychology on the development of social psychology. Discussion about the subject of social psychology in the early 1960s.

Characteristics of the state and main directions of research in social psychology in Russia at the present time. The increasing role of practical socio-psychological knowledge. Introduction of social psychology into various spheres of public life (production, politics, media activities, etc.).

Subject of social psychology. Methods of social psychology. Correlation between methodology and research methods. Basic methods of socio-psychological research (observation, content analysis, various types of surveys, tests, scales, experiment (natural and laboratory), instrumental methods, methods of expert and group assessment, etc.).

The method of sociometry in social psychology and its main modifications. Conditions for using these methods in social psychology. Qualitative methods of social and psychological research: analysis of documents, products of joint activities, case analysis method, biographical method, focus group method, etc.

The need to develop standards in socio-psychological research, the problem of validity and reliability of socio-psychological methods. Features of constructing exploratory research.

The problem of measurement in social psychology. Construction of scales as a specific form of measuring socio-psychological characteristics. Problems of measuring group phenomena and states. Mathematical and statistical methods of data processing in social psychology.

Current trends in the development of socio-psychological methods and research programs. Current theoretical and applied problems of social psychology.

Basic concepts of the section: social Psychology.

Chapter 1. History of the formation of socio-psychological ideas

Plan

§ 4. Main directions of social psychology

§ 1. Three periods in the history of social psychology

The history of the formation of socio-psychological ideas can be divided into three main stages

First stage. Accumulation of socio-psychological knowledge in the field of philosophy and general psychology (VI century BC – mid-XIX century).

The works of Plato, Aristotle, Bacon, Montaigne and other thinkers, along with general philosophical and sociological content, contain elements of socio-psychological doctrines.

Second phase. Separation of descriptive social psychology from philosophy (sociology) and general psychology (50-60s of the 19th century – 20s of the 20th century) into an independent field of knowledge.

The first descriptive theories are created, in which attempts are made to explain socio-psychological phenomena, knowledge about which had already accumulated by this time. They are contained in the following doctrines (according to W. F. Ogborn).

1. “Analogous or “organismic” (organism) theory.

2. The theory of the racial or collective unconscious.

3. The concept of objective spirit (W.-F. Hegel).

4. The theory of “soul of the people” or “national spirit” (psychology of peoples).

5. The theory of collective representations by E. Durkheim.

6. The theory of cultural determinism.

7. The concept of “general segment”.

Third stage. Formation of social psychology into an experimental science (from the 1920s to the present), as accurate as the branches of natural science. Scientists use experiment, qualitative analysis of phenomena is complemented by quantitative analysis, and the laws of the existence of the social psyche are revealed.

§ 2. The emergence and development of social psychology as a science abroad

The beginning of foreign social psychology is usually associated with experiments V. Mede, F. Allport, which in the 1920s. began to experimentally study socio-psychological phenomena in groups V. Mede in 1920 in Leipzig he published the results of his experiments with groups. Their main provisions: there are different types of people in relation to the team (positive, negative, neutral); in the cognitive sphere, the influence of the team is less than in the sphere of emotions, motor skills and will; Depending on the type of attitude towards the team, there are shifts in the psychological atmosphere.

In 1924 g. in the work “Social Psychology” F. Allport The following results of experiments in a group of students were published: judgments about the texts of philosophers are higher in quality, but in terms of the speed of putting forward refutations, they are slower in isolated conditions than in the group; in isolated conditions there are more personal aspects in associations compared to group conditions in assessing the smells and weight of objects; the group smooths out the extremes of judgment.

A definite turn in the history of social psychology was the Hawthorne experiment of E. Mayo, which laid the foundation for the doctrine of “human relations”, which becomes central in the industrial sociology of the West.

During these same years, such methods of social psychology as in-depth interviews, projective tests, biographical methods, etc. were developed.

Kurt Lewin was one of the first to propose a so-called field experiment to study group dynamics and the psychological atmosphere in a group. A whole direction has emerged, called sociometry, headed by J. Moreno. Sociometry literally translated is the measurement of a comrade, an accomplice. When measuring a friend, I measure myself.

§ 3. Development of social psychology in our country

The development of ideas of social psychology in our country has its own history. Among the thinkers XVIII V. should be mentioned V. N. Tatishcheva, M. V. Lomonosova, A. N. Radishcheva. Social and psychological ideas occupy a prominent place in the works of such Russian thinkers of the 19th – early 20th centuries: N. G. Chernyshevsky N. K. Mikhailovsky, V. G. Plekhanov, V. M. Bekhterev, A. Kopelman and etc.

1920–1930s - This is the stage of formation and growth of Marxist social psychology. For the first time, the question of the subject of social psychology was raised in the 1920s. was delivered G. I. Chelpanov in the works “Psychology and Marxism”, “Social psychology or “conditioned reflexes”?”, in which the thesis about psychology as social was substantiated. A direction was developed called “behavioral psychology.”

The school of reactology made a great contribution to the development of socio-psychological ideas in our country V. M. Bekhtereva. He considered social psychology one of the areas of sociology, understanding by it, first of all, the psychology of a group, which studies mental manifestations in cases where social associations are formed (two or more individuals), mass phenomena of a group, collective observation, collective concentration, collective emotions and moods. The task of collective reflexology is to establish the nature of the social connection established between individuals, the influence of the nature of the relationship between individuals on the characteristics of the mental activity of the group and the influence of the team on the individual, the characteristics of the behavior of the individual in the group. Merit of V. M. Bekhterev was that he raised the question of the need for social psychology as a science and defined its subject.

School of Reactology (K. N. Kornilov, V. A. Artemov, etc.) tried to take into account both objective and subjective in human behavior. K. N. Kornilov considered the subject of social psychology to be “the study of human behavior in a team.” V. A. Artemov, who sharply criticized “collective reflexology” for the fact that the entire system is built on the basis of the principle of reflex, the scope of which is expanded to “hyperbolic dimensions.” In his work “Introduction to Social Psychology,” V. A. Artemov attributed the following phenomena to the subject of social psychology: the psychological nature of a collective act, which includes a comparative analysis of behavior in the team and outside it; forms of collective behavior itself, to which he included self-esteem, mutual assistance and struggle, sympathy, imitation, verbal influence, suggestion, various types of human assessments; the psychological side of social institutions and establishments, which included fashions, mores, customs, etc.

Among the numerous areas in domestic social psychology, one can single out the school P. P. Blonsky, studying psychology as a science of behavior; activity B. D. Friedman, A. R. Luria, A. P. Varyasha, which posed the problems of social conditioning of human activity, the problem of character, the problem of the formation of morals, traditions from the false positions of eclecticism of Freudianism and Marxism, work L.N. Voitolovsky and M. A. Reisner.

Let us especially highlight the so-called cultural-historical concept L. WITH. Vygotsky. According to this concept, the culture of the human race stores universal information about the behavior of individuals. Appearing in this world, we assimilate a certain fragment of this culture, precisely that fragment that will then regulate our behavior in specific types of activities. Outside of culture, human interaction is impossible. Socialization of an individual is an introduction to the culture of the family. L. S. Vygotsky and A. N. Leontiev developed the activity approach in social psychology.

However, due to a number of objective and subjective reasons, social psychology in our country has not become an independent science. From the beginning of the second half of the 1930s. after the Decree of July 4, 1936 “On pedological perversions in the system of People’s Commissars of Education” (Directives of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the Decree of the Soviet Government on public education for 1917–1947, M., 1947, p. 193), the development of social psychology virtually ceased . Pedology, psychotechnics, and social psychology were viewed as bourgeois pseudosciences. The dominant assertion has become that Soviet psychological science is social in nature, and to develop a special social psychology means to smuggle bourgeois theories into domestic science

After a long and tragic break in the history of the development of social psychology in our country in 1958-59. The first publications on social psychology appear, and specific socio-psychological research is launched. Since 1962, the press begins to discuss the subject of social psychology and its place in the system of social sciences. By the end of the 1960s - beginning of the 1970s. The process of formation and separation of social psychology into an independent scientific discipline has basically been completed. In 1962, the country's first social psychology laboratory was organized at Leningrad State University. Numerous research centers are emerging in Moscow, Leningrad, Kursk, Kostroma, Yaroslavl, Kyiv, Minsk, Tbilisi, and in the Baltic republics. In 1968, the Department of Social Psychology was created at Leningrad State University, and in 1972 in Moscow. This is the history of the formation of socio-psychological ideas. Among the outstanding scientists developing social psychology as a science in our country are: G. M. Andreev, V. B. Olshansky, I. WITH. Kona, B. D. Parygin, G. P. Predvechny, Yu. A. Sherkovin, A. V. Petrovsky, K. K. Platonov, B. F. Porshnev, L. I. Antsyferov, A. A. Bodalev, N. N. Obozova and others.

Main directions of social psychology. The main areas of social psychology include: behaviorism and neobehaviorism(B. Skinner, E. Hull, D. Homane, A. Bandura, etc.), neo-Freudianism(E. Fromm, J. Sullivan, G. Shepard, W. Schutz, etc.), cognitivism(Klevin, F. Heider, L. Festinger, C. Osgood, S. Asch, etc.), interactionism(G. Mead et al.), sociocultural determinism(L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, etc.).

§ 4. Current problems in the development of modern social psychology

The history of social psychology as a science has experienced periods of growth, in which interesting theories were created, scientists left their offices and turned their attention to socio-psychological processes in real groups, and decline, disappointment in emerging theories, doubts about their ability to explain more and more new theories. social phenomena of interaction of both individuals and large and small groups. For example, the rapid development of socio-psychological research after the Second World War created the impression of a very successful and productive development of the young science. However, by the end of the 1960s. a clear vision of paths and tasks was replaced by widespread disappointment in the results, doubt about the goals and uncertainty about the social relevance of socio-psychological knowledge. The problem of the inadequacy of the methodological arsenal of experimental social psychology to its subject – the social behavior of people – has become urgent. In the process of solving it, two directions (two paradigms) of social psychology arose: positivist (neo-positivist) and social-constructivist.

Representatives of neositivism argue that social phenomena are subject to laws common to all reality, methods of social research must be as accurate, rigorous and objective as the methods of natural science (scientism), “subjective aspects” of human behavior can be studied only through open behavior (behaviorism) , the truth of scientific concepts and statements must be established on the basis of empirical procedures (verification), all social phenomena must be described and expressed quantitatively (quantification), social science must be free from value judgments and connections with ideology (methodological objectivism), and social psychology - is a science that studies the processes of social interaction between people.

As A. N. Onuchin writes, supporters of the new paradigm in social psychology (social constructionism) adhere to the belief that “comprehension of sociopsychological reality is not equivalent to “physical knowledge” and requires a fundamentally different epistemological model. From this point of view, scientific truth is not identical to the knowledge about the world as it is that an objective observer has. Accordingly, a scientific theory cannot be reduced to the description of this truth by selected researchers... The criterion for evaluating a sociopsychological theory is not the degree of its correspondence to the real world, but its social intelligibility and ability to generate new behavioral phenomena that affirm the “truth” projected by the theory. Within the framework of the new paradigm, social behavior is interpreted as a discursive, meaning-creating activity. Therefore, such phenomena as the rules and structure of conversions, ideological functions of thinking, etc. are subject to comprehension here.”

Another characteristic of the new direction of social psychology is that it is a specific type of social criticism, in the process of which the objectivity of conventional knowledge is questioned; Phenomena such as emotions, suicide, schizophrenia, altruism, beliefs, childhood, domestic violence are either limited by culture, history, social context, or do not exist at all. “What is significant is only the known world, and not the world as such. Social constructionist analysis covers such diverse phenomena as gender, aggression, reason, causality, personality, self, child, motivation, emotions, morality. As a rule, the focus of these studies is on the linguistic forms accepted in society, the means of achieving social agreement regarding these forms, as well as the meaning of the latter for other areas of social life. » .

Chapter 2. Subject and method of the course “Social psychology”

Plan

Introduction

§ 1. Subject of social psychology

Already in the 19th century. the idea arose that in addition to the individual psyche, the soul of the human individual, under certain conditions a certain supra-individual, social psyche begins to appear, which should be studied not by general, but by social psychology. It has been observed that the social psyche arises whenever several individuals come together and begin to form a social community. Their behavior begins to be controlled by the collective rather than the individual psyche. It began to be called the “social soul”, “social consciousness”, “collective psychology”, etc., implying something mental that lies beyond the boundaries of individual subjectivity. It has been noticed that in a society of similar people, the motives of a person’s behavior, his actions, values, etc. change. His individual soul dissolves in a certain “collective soul”, which controls his behavior. A new branch of scientific knowledge has emerged, designed to “understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or presumed presence of others” (G. Allport).

By the middle of the 20th century. Scientists and researchers have accumulated a large number of descriptions of socio-psychological facts and phenomena, conducted experiments that made it possible to obtain information about the diverse aspects of human behavior and interaction in various conditions of life. Scientific reflection was required, allowing to bring social psychology to the level of development, i.e., to determine the subject and methodology of scientific knowledge about socio-psychological phenomena, facts and patterns

During the discussion, scientists discovered differences in ideas about the sources of social psychology. For example, some scientists believed that social psychology is a sociological discipline (G.V. Osipov, M.Ya. Kovalzon, D.M. Ugrinovich, etc.); others - a branch of a unified psychological science (K.K. Platonov, V.I. Selivanov, etc.); the third - independent science (Yu. Levada, Zh. Oshavkov, etc.); fourth, that it simultaneously has both sociological and psychological status, since it arose and exists at the junction of two sciences (A. G. Kovalev, V. B. Olshansky, etc.). The fifth approach reveals the existence of two social psychologies: sociologically oriented and psychologically oriented (G. M. Andreeva and others). The American scientist R. Zajonc wrote: “If a mouse, moving through a maze, prefers the left corridor to the right because there is food in it, then a psychologist studies its behavior. If a mouse turns left because another mouse is sitting in the right corridor, then a social psychologist should deal with this behavior.” According to the sixth approach, social psychology is a science that studies how people think about each other, how they influence each other and how they treat each other (D. Myres et al.).

The diversity of ideas about the status of social psychology as a science and the sources of its origin also explains the difficulty in describing its subject. This problem can be solved only by integrating different approaches and highlighting the following subject areas:

1) socio-psychological problems of the individual - socialization of the individual, social roles, statuses, dispositional structure of the individual;

2) socio-psychological phenomena in small groups (psychological compatibility, psychology of groups and teams, compatibility, mechanisms of group control, reference groups, leadership and management, conformism);

3) socio-psychological phenomena in large groups (psychology of classes, nations, professional groups, etc.);

4) mass mental phenomena (crowd, panic, audience, audience);

5) mass consciousness (social emotions, feelings, moods, misconceptions, illusions, values, attitudes);

6) psychological mechanisms of influence of a person on a person (imitation, suggestion, infection);

Issues related to the description of the subject of social psychology are reflected in the definitions of the science itself. You can find one of the definitions in the text above, others by reading some of the works yourself.

§ 2. Basic methods of social psychology

For the study of socio-psychological facts, events and phenomena in social psychology as a science, there are three methodological levels.

The first is the general methodology. This is a general philosophical approach, a general way of cognition adopted by researchers, which allows us to formulate some of the most general principles that are used in research. The philosophical and methodological level of socio-psychological research allows us to determine the place and significance of socio-psychological phenomena, processes and states in the social system.

The second level is private (or special) methodology. It contains a set of methodological principles applied in a given field of knowledge and implements philosophical principles in relation to a specific object of study. This is a specific way of knowing, adapted for a narrower sphere of knowledge. For social psychology, this is, for example, a principle of activity. As G. M. Andreeva writes, “in the broadest sense of the word, the philosophical principle of activity means the recognition of activity as the essence of a person’s way of being; it is the implementation of an even more general principle - the principle of reflection, when consciousness is considered as the highest form of reflection, presupposing the activity of the individual. In sociology, activity is interpreted as a way of existence of human society, as the implementation of social laws, which manifest themselves only through the activities of people. Activity both produces and changes the specific conditions of existence of individuals, as well as society as a whole. It is through activity that a person is included in the system of social relations. In psychology, activity is considered as a specific type of human activity, as a certain subject-object relationship in which a person - a subject - relates to an object in a certain way and masters it. In the course of activity, a person realizes his interest, transforming the objective world. At the same time, a person satisfies some needs, and at the same time new needs are born. Thus, activity appears as a process during which the human personality itself develops.

Social psychology, accepting the principle of activity as one of the principles of its special methodology, adapts it in relation to the main subject of its research - the group. Therefore, in social psychology, the most important content of the principle of activity is revealed in the following provisions: a) understanding of activity as a joint social activity of people, during which very special connections arise, for example, communicative ones; b) understanding as a subject of activity not only an individual, but also a group, society, i.e., the introduction of the idea of ​​a collective subject of activity; this makes it possible to study real social groups as specific systems of activity; c) provided that the group is understood as a subject of activity, the opportunity opens up to study all the relevant attributes of the subject of activity - needs, motives, goals of the group, etc.; d) the conclusion is that it is inadmissible to reduce any research only to an empirical description, to a simple statement of acts of individual activity outside a certain “social context” - a given system of social relations. The principle of activity thus turns into a kind of standard for socio-psychological research and determines the research strategy. And this is the function of a special methodology.” The significance of theoretical research lies in the fact that it provides knowledge of the essence, general structure and causes of socio-psychological processes, and makes it possible to bring the categorical apparatus into a relative system. They act as the basis for experimental and empirical research and the practical use of their results.

The third level is methodology as a set of specific research methods or techniques. The experimental-empirical level has as its subject socio-psychological facts, the accumulation of empirical material necessary for further research and generalization.

Thus, social psychology as a system of scientific knowledge includes a set of interrelated methodological levels that allow specialists to obtain factual material, theoretical constructs, principles, laws and categories, hypotheses, confirmed conclusions, methods, techniques and research techniques in the process of research.

The methodology of socio-psychological research is a system of operations, procedures, methods for establishing socio-psychological facts, their systematization and means of their analysis; it is a research tactic.

All methods of socio-psychological research are divided into quantitative and qualitative.

Quantitative methods. This group of methods of socio-psychological research includes the following methods of obtaining data about the object being studied, which make it possible to identify its quantitative characteristics:

Observation– purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality, during which the researcher gains knowledge regarding the external aspects, states and relationships of the objects that are being studied. The main object of observation in social psychology is both the behavior and interaction of individuals and social groups, and the conditions of their activity.

Experiment– a method whose purpose is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice. The essence of the experiment is to, by selecting a certain experimental group (groups) and placing it in an unusual experimental situation (under the influence of a certain factor), to trace the direction, magnitude and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher. There are field and laboratory experiments, linear and parallel. When selecting experimental participants, methods of pairwise selection or structural identification, as well as random selection, are used. The planning and logic of the experiment include the following procedures: selection of the object used as the experimental and control groups; selection of control, factor and neutral characteristics; determination of experimental conditions and creation of an experimental situation; formulating hypotheses and defining tasks; selection of indicators and method of monitoring the progress of the experiment.

Document analysis– one of the widely used and effective methods of collecting primary information. The purpose of the study is to search for indicators that indicate the presence in a document of a topic that is significant for analysis and reveal the content of textual information.

The selection of information sources depends on the research program, and specific or random sampling methods may be used.

There are the following types of this method: external analysis of documents, in which the circumstances of the origin of documents, their historical and social context are studied, and internal analysis, during which, in fact, the content of the document is studied, everything that is evidenced by the source text, and those objective processes and the phenomena reported by the document.

Survey– a method of collecting socio-psychological information, which involves an oral or written address by the researcher to a certain population of people (respondents) with questions, the content of which represents the problem being studied at the level of empirical indicators; registration and statistical processing of the received answers, their theoretical interpretation. The main types of surveys, depending on the written or oral form of communication with respondents, are questionnaires and interviews. They are based on a set of questions that are offered to respondents and the answers to which constitute an array of primary data. Questions are asked to respondents through a questionnaire or questionnaire.

Questionnaire is a system of questions united by a single research plan aimed at identifying the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the object and subject of research. The structure of the questionnaire represents a kind of scenario of a conversation between the researcher and the respondent. It includes a brief introduction, which indicates the topic, goals, objectives of the survey, and the name of the organization conducting it; the technique of filling out the questionnaire is explained, followed by the easiest questions, the task of which is to interest the interlocutor, to introduce him to the problems being discussed, then more complex questions and a kind of “passport” (indicating socio-demographic data).

Preparations for conducting a socio-psychological survey consist of three main stages.

Stage 1. Determination of the theoretical prerequisites of the survey: goals and objectives, problems, object and subject, operational definition of the initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators.

Stage 2. Justification of the sample, during which the general population is determined (those layers and groups of the population to which the survey results are expected to be extended) and the rules for searching and selecting respondents at the last stage of sampling.

Stage 3. Justification of the questionnaire (questionnaire), i.e., a meaningful representation of the research problem is formulated in the form of questions intended for respondents, the questionnaire is justified regarding the capabilities of the population being surveyed as a source of the sought information.

Expert assessment method, which psychologists turn to when it is difficult for a researcher to determine the object that is the carrier of the problem. These may be problems of prospects for the development of advisory assistance or attempts to objectively assess aspects and qualities of people for which their self-assessment may be incorrect (for example, a practical psychologist). Such information can only be obtained from competent persons - experts who have in-depth knowledge of the subject or object of research. Surveys of competent persons are called expert surveys, and the survey results are called expert assessments.

Sociometric research methods in a small social group. The creation and development of sociometric methodology is associated with the name of J. Moreno, a well-known person in practical psychology. Back in the 1930s. he created sociometry as an easy-to-use technique for studying emotional connections in a group. He considered connections of this kind, built on the sympathy and antipathy of people, to be the most important both for the existence and productive functioning of the smallest group, and for the well-being, performance, and development prospects of an individual in this group. Unfortunately, at present, researchers tend to interpret the possibilities of sociometry broadly. Using this method, they try to explore leadership processes, ways and means of transmitting information in a group, attitudes towards the leader, and much more. Sociometry is often used to study leadership and identify leaders. However, strictly speaking, sociometry does not study leadership processes and does not identify leaders. In terms of its methodological content, it is not suitable for studying the processes of psychological influence. Sociometry was created to study the structure of emotional interpersonal preferences and the structure of a small social group. Each person in the group has an emotional status. If we define it qualitatively, then status is a person’s position in a given group. Through the features of this position, a person in a group evaluates himself and is evaluated by others. Status is measured quantitatively by sociometry by counting the number of positive (first question) and negative (second question) choices made towards a given person by all members of his group. If we now present all the statuses of group members in the form of a single hierarchy, we will obtain a sociometric structure of the group, which is quite stable, significant for the development of the group as a whole, and determines a lot in the individual destinies of group members. Its study, formation and correction is one of the main tasks of a social psychologist.

Qualitative methods. This group of methods of social and psychological research includes the following methods of obtaining data about the object being studied, which make it possible to identify its qualitative characteristics:

Focus group technique(focus group discussion of micro social problems). The focus group method has become widespread in recent years as one of the most efficient and effective ways to collect and analyze socio-psychological information. This method is usually used in combination with quantitative methods, for example, participant observation.

The implementation of this method involves the formation of several discussion groups, each consisting of 10–12 people, and a discussion of the problem under study in them with the aim of better understanding it and finding optimal solutions. The focus of attention of participants in group discussions is focused on one important aspect of the problem, and the attention of researchers is focused on finding out the opinions of participants on the issue posed, on the significance of different points of view of representatives of different social categories. Its advantage over questionnaires and individual interviews is that:

– the interaction of respondents in a focus group usually stimulates deeper responses and allows new ideas to emerge during group discussion;

– the customer of the research can himself observe the progress of the discussion of the problem of interest to him and receive first-hand information about the behavior, attitudes, feelings and language of respondents, draw his own conclusions about ways to solve the problem;

– it is faster and cheaper than questionnaires or interviews, and allows researchers to save time, financial and labor costs.

– allows you to quickly determine the causes of the problem under discussion.

The results of socio-psychological research using the focus group method depend on compliance with certain requirements for the organization of their work. These requirements include determining the required number of focus groups, establishing the number of their participants, forming the optimal composition of participants, the duration of their work, choosing the location of the focus group meeting, placing participants in the room, developing a script for a focus group discussion, and implementing this script by the moderator , i.e., the leader of the focus group discussion, and his assistants and observers and, stenographers, operators.

An important part of socio-psychological research is its compilation Programs. It includes the formulation of the problem, goals and objectives, object and subject, interpretation of the concepts of the hypothesis, definition of the population being surveyed, and description of research methods. Let's look at these elements.

Problem– these are contradictions between a social situation and its theoretical representation, requiring certain methods, procedures and research techniques for their knowledge and resolution. The problem of socio-psychological research is expressed in a question or set of questions that are of theoretical or practical interest and do not have answers in the accumulated socio-psychological knowledge. Formulating a problem involves both a precise distinction between what actually contains a contradiction and what is not, as well as a clear division of what is essential and what is not essential in relation to the overall problem, as well as its division into elements and their ordering by priority.

Purpose of the study– general focus of the research, expected final result. It determines the predominant orientation towards solving theoretical or practical problems. The goal of fundamental, theoretical and epistemological research is to establish the patterns of a certain socio-psychological process (for example, the emergence, development and functioning of rumors during certain periods of social development); The purpose of theoretical and applied research is to solve practical problems, develop practical recommendations, search for new directions for solving certain socio-psychological problems, for example, in an organization. In this type of research, the goal must be agreed upon with representatives of the organization that ordered the research.

Formulating a problem involves choosing a specific object research, which can be everything that contains a social contradiction and gives rise to a problematic situation. Problem situation

– a contradiction that arises objectively in the process of social development between knowledge about people’s needs for any effective theoretical or practical actions and ignorance of the ways, means and methods of implementing these necessary actions.

In addition to the object, the formation of a problem also involves highlighting subject of research, that is, those aspects and properties of the object in which the contradiction is most fully manifested, on the basis of which a problem has arisen that requires definition. Unlike the object of research, the content of which does not depend on the subject, the subject of socio-psychological research is the result of the interaction of the subject and the object of knowledge. The formation of the subject of research is determined both by the properties of the object and the nature of the problems facing the social psychologist, the level of scientific knowledge and means of cognition at his disposal. The subject of research presupposes the presence of an object, but does not coincide with it.

The same social object can be studied in order to solve various scientific problems. The formulation of the subject of research indicates the boundaries within which the object is studied in this particular study.

The next element of the methodological part of the socio-psychological research program is the logical analysis of basic concepts, which consists of two procedures - interpretation and operationalization of the leading concepts of the study included in the definition of its subject.

Interpretation of concepts– this is an interpretation, clarification of their meaning, so that, by reconstructing the scheme for deriving a meaningful definition of concepts, to ensure the possibility of their adequate understanding and assimilation. By reducing the content of a concept to empirical features, a social psychologist achieves a comparison of the content of general concepts with reality, creating the possibility of measuring the phenomenon, object, or process under study using socio-psychological methods.

By operationalizing concepts, the researcher identifies factors influencing the course of the process being studied in order to regulate and manage this process.

Operationalization of concepts– a set of operations with the help of which concepts used in socio-psychological research are divided into constituent elements that can collectively describe their content. Operationalization allows you to clarify the qualitative structure of the subject of research. Concepts that are obtained through the process of operationalization are called operational concepts. The role of operationalization is to clarify what information should be collected about.

The next stage of drawing up a research program is formulating a hypothesis. Research hypothesis– this is a reasonable assumption about the structure of the social objects being studied, the nature of its constituent elements, the mechanism of functioning and development. A hypothesis is a scientific assumption put forward to explain any facts, phenomena and processes that need to be confirmed or refuted. Basic requirements for a hypothesis:

– compliance with the original principles of socio-psychological theories;

– interconnectedness of the totality of elements of the system of evidence of the put forward explanation;

– accessibility to verification in the process of this socio-psychological study (indicate the method of verification);

– consistency with known and verified facts, as well as with each other (although there may be alternatives);

– simplicity, development from general premises to empirically interpretable consequences.

It is customary to highlight the following types of hypotheses:

– according to the degree of generality of assumptions: hypothesis-justification and hypothesis-consequence;

– from the point of view of research objectives: basic and non-basic;

– according to the degree of validity and development: primary and secondary.

Tasks socio-psychological research is formulated in accordance with its purpose and hypotheses and is conventionally divided into basic, particular and additional. The main tasks are to find an answer to the central question: what are the ways and means of solving the problem under study?

An important point in compiling the procedural part of the study is definition of the survey population, In this connection, the social psychologist faces the problem of sampling. To do this, it is important to formulate several necessary concepts of general population, sample population, sampling and representativeness.

Population– the entire set of observation units that are relevant to a given problem. It is limited by territory, time, profession, and functional framework. Sample population- part of the general population, which acts as a direct object of study following the developed research program.

Sample– a representative part of the general population, reproducing the law of the dividing feature of this population. Elements of the sample population (respondents) to be studied (for example, a survey) act as units of analysis. Under the same category selection units refers to elements (for example, groups of respondents) selected at each stage of sampling according to a special plan.

Representativeness- this is the property of a sample population to reproduce the characteristics of the general population. There are two main types of sampling: probability and purposive. The difference between them is in the methods used. If in the first type the methods of random (random-non-repetition and random-repeat), mechanical, serial and cluster sampling are used, then in the second - spontaneous, quota and main array. In addition, it is possible to distinguish single- and multi-stage samples based on the form of implementation. The total number of observation units included in the sample population is called the sample size. It depends: on the degree of homogeneity of the general population, the required degree of accuracy of the results, and the number of sample features.

Summary

1. Social psychology went through three stages in its development. At the first stage, there was an accumulation of socio-psychological knowledge in the field of philosophy and general psychology (VI century BC - mid-19th century). At the second stage, descriptive social psychology was separated from philosophy (sociology) and general psychology (50-60s of the 19th century - 20s of the 20th century) into an independent field of knowledge. At the third stage, social psychology took shape into an experimental science (1920s to the present), as precise as the branches of natural science.

2. The emergence and development of social psychology as a science abroad is associated with the activities of such famous scientists as V. Mede, F. Allport, E. Mayo, Thomas and Znaniecki, Tardg, Le Bon, Wundt, K. Levin, J. Moreno, S. Asha, St. Milgram and others

3. The development of social psychology in our country has a dramatic history and is associated with the activities of such scientists as G. I. Chelpanov, V. M. Bekhterev, K. N. Kornilov, V. A. Artemov, P. P. Blonsky, B D. Fridman, A. R. Luria, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, G. M. Andreeva, V. B. Olshansky, I. S. Kon, B. D. Parygin, G. P Prevechny, Yu. A. Sherkovin, A. V. Petrovsky, K. K. Latonov, B. F. Porshnev, L. I. Antsyferova, A. A. Bodalev, N. N. Obozov, Yu. M. Fedorov And etc.

4. The main directions of social psychology include behaviorism and neobehaviorism (B. Skinner, E. Hull, D. Homane, A. Bandura, etc.), neo-Freudianism (E. Fromm, J. Sullivan, G. Shepard, W. Schutz and others), cognitivism (K. Levin, F. Heider, L. Festinger, C. Osgood, S. Asch and others), interactionism (G. Mead and others), sociocultural determinism (L. S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontyev and others).

5. Current problems in the development of modern social psychology consist in a change in the main paradigms caused by the actualization of the problem of the inadequacy of the methodological arsenal of experimental social psychology to its subject - the social behavior of people. In the process of solving it, two directions (two paradigms) of social psychology arose: positivist (neo-positivist) and social-constructivist.

6. Social psychology has a marginal status, which integrates various approaches and distinguishes subject areas:

– socio-psychological problems of the individual – socialization of the individual, social roles, statuses, dispositional structure of the individual;

– socio-psychological phenomena in small groups (psychological compatibility, psychology of groups and teams, compatibility, mechanisms of group control, reference groups, leadership and management, conformism);

– socio-psychological phenomena in large groups (psychology of classes, nations, professional groups, etc.);

– mass mental phenomena (crowd, panic, public, audience);

– mass consciousness (social emotions, feelings, moods, misconceptions, illusions, values, attitudes);

– psychological mechanisms of influence of a person on a person (imitation, suggestion, infection);

7. Social psychology as a system of scientific knowledge includes a set of interrelated methodological levels that allow specialists to obtain factual material, theoretical constructs, principles, laws and categories, hypotheses, confirmed conclusions, methods, techniques and research techniques in the process of research.

8. Methods of socio-psychological research are divided into quantitative and qualitative: observation, experiment, document analysis, survey, expert assessment method, sociometric research methods, focus group technique.

9. An important part of socio-psychological research is the preparation of its Program. It includes the formulation of the problem, goals and objectives, object and subject, interpretation of the concepts of the hypothesis, definition of the population being surveyed, and description of research methods.

Self-test questions

1. Name the main stages in the formation of socio-psychological ideas.

2. Name the main problems of the modern stage of the existence of social psychology.

3. Remember the discussions on the subject of social psychology. What are the features of different points of view?

4. List the main methods of social psychology.

Bibliography

Mandatory

3. Shibutani T. Social psychology. Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2002.

Additional

1. Budilova E. A. Social and psychological problems in Russian science. M.: Nauka, 1983.

2. Questions of the history of general and applied psychology. Digest of articles. Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 1978.

3. History of foreign psychology. Texts. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1986.

5. Milgram S. Experiment in social psychology. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.

6. General characteristics of the state of theoretical knowledge in modern Western social psychology // Modern foreign social psychology. Texts. Under. ed. Andreeva G.M. et al. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1984.

7. Olshansky V. B. Practical psychology for managers, teachers and parents. Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 1998.

8. Onuchin A.I. “New paradigm” in social psychology // World of Psychology. 1999. No. 3. P. 90–97.

9. Modern foreign social psychology. Texts. M.: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1984.

10. YaroshevskyM. G. History of psychology. M.: Mysl, 1985. A

Section II
General issues in social psychology

Main questions of the section. Society as a process of total human activity. Culture as a universal regulator of activity and communication. Role theory. Social roles and human masks. Social stereotypes and standards of behavior. Gender roles. Socio-psychological diagnostics and the problem of predicting human social behavior. Concept and types of social behavior. Mechanisms of social regulation of behavior.

Basic concepts of the section: activity, sign, sign mediation, culture, role, social position, rules, symbol, social functions, personal status, status, subculture, values, language.

Chapter 3. Socio-psychological problems of the relationship between society and the individual

Plan

§ 1. Society as a process of total human activity

In social psychology, the problem of the relationship between society and the individual is presented in the following concepts. According to one of them, society is a collection of individuals (T. Hobbes). According to another concept, society is a set of social relations. According to K. Marx, activity is the basis of everything social: “History is nothing more than the activity of a person pursuing his goals.” However, society is not just an activity, but “various activities” of people who are in different social relationships. An individual included in social connections and relationships is actually included only in a certain fragment of these connections, which determines his position in society. The task of the individual is to promote the homomorphism of two complex systems - society and personality - in the process of activity. Homomorphy occurs when the elements of one system correspond to the elements of another.

The interaction of these two systems occurs through role-playing activities. Let us recall the definition of the activities of A. N. Leontyev: "Activity- a dynamic system of interactions between a subject and the world, during which the emergence and embodiment of a mental image in an object and the implementation of the subject’s mediated relations in objective reality occur.” Activity can be considered as a set of social functions. “Social functions are the objective contribution that members of society make (or should make) to the production of social values ​​in accordance with the division of labor established in society. These are certain real contributions that individuals must make to the process of joint activity.”

An illustration of the functional approach to the activity process is the behavior of the players of a sports team, where each athlete knows his maneuver. Therefore, we can say that human activity is a set of certain social functions.

Thus, society from the point of view of social psychology is a process of cumulative human activity. In a society, everyone has to do their part, and everyone's contribution is matched to the other's for successful collective interaction.

§ 2. Role theory or social roles and human masks

Performing social functions, an individual plays social roles in society. Role theory is an attempt to metaphorically explain from the point of view of social psychology the process of “weaving the individual into the fabric of the social” (G. M. Andreeva).

And although different psychologists refer to the term “role” differently, for example, the famous psychologist A. N. Leontiev called the role approach ridiculous, immoral, one of the most monstrous (Leontyev, 1975), One cannot deny the very fact of “role behavior” in life.

The basic concepts of role theory are taken from theatrical terminology. By social role, various authors mean basically one thing - a certain behavior expected from everyone occupying a given position. As V. B. Olshansky writes, “in an ideal diagram” of one type of interaction or another, each actor takes his own position. More specifically, it is defined in relation to other positions. In the elementary case, there are only “position” and “counterposition” in the diagram. For example, if someone wants to make a purchase, he finds a person in the position of a seller and takes the corresponding counterposition, that is, he behaves as appropriate in this situation.” (Olshansky, 1975).

“A role is understood as a function, a normatively approved mode of behavior expected of everyone occupying a given position.” In social drama, in addition to the role, there is the concept of action - “performance”, “action”, “activity”. Hence the analytical unit – “act”, which became the main term of the concept (cf. “social act”, “activity”, “interactionism”, “transactions”). Theatergoers use the word "actor". Sociologists are an “actor”. An actor is a performer of a social role. The process of fulfilling social roles is associated with expectation - expectation, the requirement to play one’s role in a certain way (according to certain rules).

According to Smelser, “Our roles are determined by other people's expectations. Some of these expectations, such as laws, are formal, while others, such as table manners, are informal. When a person's behavior matches role expectations, he receives social rewards (such as money, respect)." (Smelser, 1991). In every social system and group there are regulations, sanctions and reinforcements (types of material and moral stimulation); they are stereotypical requirements for an individual, regardless of his individual-typical characteristics. These requirements in the form of “role expectations” determine a person’s behavior in a given social system in the form of performing given social functions and roles (Ananyev, 1968).

If a person's behavior deviates from social expectations, society reacts with social sanctions. “The social system in its stable state,” wrote the founders of the theory of action T. Parsons and Shils, “is a process of mutually complementary activity, where each satisfies the expectations of the other (others) in such a way that the reaction of the other action of the “I” becomes a positive sanction that serves as reinforcement his intentions and, therefore, meeting his expectations."

With the help of sanctions of various kinds, society exercises social control over a person. The nature of control depends on the level of development of society. As V.M. Bekhterev writes, “... as soon as a person tries to go beyond the general rules, he will feel the full force of the social grip, which will bring him within the boundaries or squeeze him to the point of complete destruction.” To harmonize expectations in society, there is a shared system of values ​​that form the core of the community's culture.

A social role has several characteristics:

– she is impersonal;

– reflects the inclusion of an individual in the activities of a specific group and the performance of certain functions and responsibilities in the conditions of relationships of responsible dependence established in the group between its members;

– associated with social expectations.

A person can play social roles for everyone, for a group, for himself (Asmolov, 1990).

Attempts to classify social roles

Classification of social roles according to N. D. Levitov

1. Roles, conscious and unconscious, in other words, consciously assumed by a person on his own initiative and forced or, as it were, imposed by circumstances.

2. Roles are more or less stable and episodic.

3. Roles that are inextricably linked and unrelated.

4. Roles are open, outwardly expressed and vice versa - hidden to one degree or another.

5. Roles central and secondary for the individual.

6. The roles are stereotypical and original.

7. Roles attributed to oneself by a person and attributed to a person by others.

8. Roles are real and imaginary.

9. Roles are individual (personal) and collective (group).

T. Parsons proposed classifying all roles based on five main characteristics:

– Some roles require emotional restraint, while others allow for emotional expression.

– Some roles are prescribed, others are considered achieved.

– There are roles that are strictly limited, while others are more diffuse.

– Some roles involve formal communication, others involve informal relationships with people.

Classification of social roles on a systemic basis:

– “conventional” (culturally established) roles;

– “institutional” (roles in specific areas of life (peacekeepers);

– “interpersonal”. When contradictions arise, they remember: “Friendship is friendship, and service is service.”

A person’s role can be assigned by nature, society, or he obtains it himself (for example, studying at a university). He consistently changes social roles throughout his life. We can say that a person’s life is an endless change of social roles: age, professional, interpersonal

The role requires not only certain behavior, but also an appropriate social mask. A person changes masks, moving from one role to another. La Rochefoucauld wrote: “Every person, no matter who he is, tries to put on such an appearance and put on such a mask so that he is taken for who he wants to appear; therefore, we can say that society consists of only personalities.”

The question arises about the degree of influence of a social role on a person. We find confirmation of this thesis in A.S. Pushkin. “How Tatyana has changed! How firmly she stepped into her role! She soon accepted the oppressive rank of Reception!

V. Shklovsky in the story “Once Upon a Time” writes: “Decent posture does not require that a soldier behave stiffly; on the contrary, he must stand and walk deftly, freely, in accordance with the natural build of the body, and try to behave in such a way that in his conversation, gaze, and all his movements, a certain decent courage relative to his own rank is expressed, without arrogance, firmness without arrogance and insolence, and and finally, dexterity and politeness. Anyone who lowered their eyes during a conversation incurs suspicion of wickedness, fear and a bad conscience. People who look at death with composure must boldly look into the eyes of everyone, no matter what their rank, but at the same time not show arrogance... A soldier must have a mustache and sideburns; they should not be long, because such, on the contrary, disfigure the face and give it a brutal and often even disgusting appearance.” However, “...whoever a person undertakes to portray, he always plays, and at the same time himself” (M. Montaigne).

A person, playing certain social roles, occupies the corresponding status. Status ranks social roles and establishes certain privileges for roles that are played reluctantly through mechanisms such as rewards, prestige, and power.

Rewards are a set of material values ​​intended for a person performing certain roles.

Prestige is a set of positive public assessments of a given role.

Powers are socially sanctioned opportunities to influence social roles.

The amount of status is determined by the amount of rewards, prestige and powers (amount of power).

"The concept of 'social status', which refers to a person's position in society, should not be confused with the concept of 'conventional role', which refers to the contribution a participant makes to an organized enterprise."

“Social status is the position (position) of an individual or group in a social system, determined by a number of economic, professional, ethnic and other characteristics specific to a given system. A distinction is made between “prescribed” (inherited) and “achieved” (thanks to a person’s own efforts) social status.”

“Personal status is a socio-psychological characteristic of the position occupied by an individual in the structure of both functional-role and interpersonal relationships in the team.”

So, “status from the Latin status – position, condition. The position of the subject in the system of interpersonal relations, which determines his rights, responsibilities and privileges. In different groups, the same person can have different status."

Chapter 4. Sociocultural regulation of human activity and communication

Plan

§ 2. Social and psychological aspects of culture

§ 1. Culture and its significance in the regulation of human activity

Society in the context of social psychology can be defined as the total human activity, which breaks down into impersonal social functions, positions, roles. The question arises: how is the behavior of differently motivated people performing such a variety of social roles in such a variety of social situations regulated? Culture acts as such a universal regulator.

“Culture is the beliefs, values, and symbols that express them (including art and literature) that are common to a group of people and serve to organize the experiences and regulate the behavior of its members. The beliefs, values ​​and symbols of some part of the people in a group are often called a subculture...”

As a regulator of human behavior, culture performs a number of functions.

Socializing function. How important culture is for the functioning of an individual and society can be seen in the behavior of people who have not undergone socialization (“children of the jungle”, “Mowgli”).

Structuring function human life. Among humans, culture serves much the same function as genetically programmed behavior in animal life.

Function of monitoring people's behavior, that's why Freud called it repressive. He described the conflict between culture (or "civilization") and the instinctive principle of human nature. Culture defines the framework within which a person can satisfy his needs

Function of forming group membership. Members of the same cultural group tend to understand, trust, and like each other more than members of other groups. This commonality manifests itself in slang, jargon, favorite foods, fashion, etc.

Let us consider the elements of culture with the help of which the universal regulation of human behavior and communication is carried out. The main elements are: language, signs, meanings, symbols, values, norms and traditions.

Language for culture it is the same as the central nervous system for humans. It is aimed both at the external world and at the internal properties of the system. “Language is one of the stabilizers of culture; within certain limits, he is able to maintain intracultural connections. Languages ​​of different cultures of approximately the same level of development are mutually translatable.” Sign– an object (phenomenon) that serves as a representative of another object, phenomenon, process. “There is the name of a thing and the thing itself; a name is a word that points to and designates a thing. The name is neither part of the thing nor part of its essence. It is something attached to a thing and existing outside the thing.”

A sign can be defined as a phenomenon that is in certain relationships to any concrete or abstract object, to the image of this object in the human mind, to the feelings and desires of the person using (primarily perceiving or reproducing) the sign.

A person uses signs in the process of cognition and communication, for example, with its help he expresses feelings and desires, an emotional attitude towards another person, situations (gestures, facial expressions, intonations). He can use signs to indicate his membership in a group (symbols of power, state, social role, insignia in the army, tattoos, elements of jewelry in fashion, etc.), and solve complex problems of choice.

In the process of socialization, a person learns the norms, rules and values ​​of a certain culture, which he follows throughout his life. One of the manifestations of cultural behavior is a person’s desire to evaluate and attach meaning to the things, people and events with which we are dealing. What did Robinson Crusoe do when he met a man after many years of loneliness? He immediately identified (!) the situation and everyone in it: “First of all, I announced to him that his name would be Friday, because on this day of the week I saved his life. Then I taught him how to pronounce the word "master" and made him understand that it was my name."

Symbol– the next element of culture. A symbol contains much more information than a regular word. It relies on more ancient knowledge and this is what already influenced our ancestors as a source of information. The word, being a symbol, contains a clearer content. In the usual sense, the symbol is more emotionally loaded. A symbol differs from a word in that it carries information greater than itself. P. Florensky: “A symbol is an entity whose energy, fused or, more precisely, dissolved with the energy of some other, more valuable in this respect, entity, thus carries within itself this latter.” A resonance effect occurs.

Symbols organize the dynamic flow of reality, time and space, accumulate human experience, marking its key moments. For example, the belt that was used to gird oneself in patriarchal society in Rus' symbolized a person’s protection from other forces. “It is rare to see among peasants... that someone walks without a belt. “It’s a sin to walk without a belt,” people say. The belt is considered a sacred object, since, according to the peasants, it is given to everyone at baptism. Village children run around the village wearing only shirts, but always with a belt. It is considered especially indecent to pray to God without a belt, to dine without a belt, to sleep without a belt. According to peasant belief, the demon is afraid of a belted man; a belted man will not lead a “shishko” (goblin) in the forest.” The semantics of a belt can indicate his age and social status. “The belt increased the strength of men,” “The red belt, given by the wife to her husband, protected him from the dashing eye and slander of other people’s wives.” The belt was also a symbol of virginity (for brides); the groom's untying of the bride's belt at the wedding ritual meant the submission of the bride, their symbolic copulation.

The belt is the border between internal and external.

The absence of a belt is a sign of belonging to the hgonic world: for example, mermaids are described as naked or dressed in white shirts without a belt. In rituals associated with communication with “evil spirits,” the cross was removed simultaneously with the belt. American anthropologist Ruth Benedict believed that culture can only be understood in its own context and only when it is considered in its entirety. “The principle of cultural relativism is also useful for understanding subtle differences between similar cultures. In Germany, for example, doors in institutions are always tightly closed to ensure that people are isolated. Otherwise, as the Germans say, employees would be distracted from their work. In the United States, by contrast, office doors were usually left open. Americans who worked in Germany often complained that closed doors created an atmosphere of coldness that created a sense of alienation. A closed door means something completely different to Americans than to Germans.” Rules and norms, as elements of culture, contain instructions regarding how a person should behave in order to live in accordance with the values ​​of society. Rules and regulations can be formally enshrined in legislation and exist as traditions.

The next important element of culture is values. The term "values" is important for understanding human behavior. Therefore, there are different approaches to its research. For example, sociologist N. J. Smelser defines values ​​as shared beliefs about the goals to which one should strive. “They are the basis of moral doctrines. In the Christian tradition, for example, the Ten Commandments require (among other things) not to attempt human life (“thou shalt not kill”), to be faithful (“thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s wife”), and to respect parents (“honor thy father and mother”). "). And although different cultures may consider different things to be values ​​(heroism in war, artistic creativity, asceticism), each social system makes its own choice - what is considered a value and what is not.” According to M. Rokeach, values ​​are stable beliefs that a specific type of behavior or final state of existence is personally or socially preferable to another or the opposite type of behavior or final state of a being (V.B. Olshansky, translation manuscript). Values ​​can be descriptive or existential; evolutionary or evaluating people's actions; prescriptive or prescriptive, which goals and means may be desirable or undesirable (regulate relationships). In this case, society puts pressure on a person to behave morally with others. Values ​​can act as beliefs on the basis of which a person chooses to act.

Summary

1. Society from the point of view of social psychology is a process of cumulative human activity.

2. Performing social functions, an individual plays social roles in society. There are classifications of social roles.

3. Role expectations and social sanctions. With the help of sanctions of various kinds, society exercises social control over a person.

4. Culture and its importance in the regulation of human activity.

As a regulator of human behavior, culture performs a number of functions: socializing, structuring human life, controlling people’s behavior, forming group membership.

Elements of culture: language, signs, symbols, rules and norms, values.

Self-test questions

1. What is the role of the activity approach for understanding the tasks of individuals in the existence and development of society?

2. What is the main content of role theory?

3. Remember the definition of culture given by J. Smelser.

4. List the main functions of culture.

5. Name the main elements of culture.

Bibliography

Mandatory

1. Andreeva G. M. Social psychology. M.: MSU, 1999.

2. Fedorov Yu. M. Social psychology. Tyumen: Tyumen State University Publishing House, 1997.

Additional

1. Ananyev B.G. Man as an object of knowledge. L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1968. pp. 296–297.

2. Kon I. S. Sociology of personality. M., 1967. P. 23.

3. Moreno J. Sociometry. M., 1958. P. 259.

4. Olshansky V.B. Practical psychology for teachers. M.: Onega, 1994.

5. Olshansky V.B. Social expectations // Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1983. pp. 454–455.

6. Psychology. Dictionary. M.: Politizdat, 1990. P. 123.

7. Smelser N.J. Sociology // Sociological Research. 1991. No. 2.

8. Shibutani T. Social psychology. Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2000.

Section III
Social and psychological problems of personality

Main questions of the section. Problems of personality socialization in the works of foreign psychologists. Socialization-education – personality formation. Socio-psychological mechanisms of personality socialization. Social institutions of personality socialization.

Socio-psychological structure of personality. Self-concept. The concepts of “disposition”, attitude, values ​​and attitudes in the structure of personality. The concept of social attitude. The significance of attitude research in the Uznadze school for the study of social attitudes. Approaches to the study of social attitudes in Russian psychological science.

Study of social attitudes - attitudes - in modern social psychology in the West. Behaviorist, cognitivist and other approaches to the study of attitudes. Methods for measuring social attitudes. The structure of a social attitude. Cognitive, emotional and behavioral components of social attitudes. Types of social attitudes according to their modality, degree of generality and other reasons. Functions of social attitudes in the regulation of social behavior of an individual. The relationship between social attitudes and real behavior. Reasons for their discrepancy. Lapierre effect. The role of customs, traditions, situations in the implementation of the functions of social attitudes. Self-regulation of social behavior: self-awareness, self-concept, conscience, shame.

Basic concepts of the section: attitude, disposition, identification, cognitive dissonance, personality, need, socialization, fear, shame, attitude, fixation, frustration, values, value system, Self-concept.

Chapter 5. Socialization of personality

§ 1. Socialization as a socio-psychological problem

Even ancient thinkers noted the importance of childhood in a person’s later life. When describing it, they paid special attention to the importance of the knowledge and experience that a person received in the process of growing up. Particular importance was attached to adult mentors and children's educators. We know that Alexander the Great, for example, had the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle as a mentor. The creators of the model of the future society, T. More and Campanella, wrote about the importance of the process of raising children. Thinkers of the Enlightenment era (J. J. Rousseau and others) noted the role of adults in the life of a child and their influence on the tender child’s soul. Subsequently, the philosopher L. Feuerbach wrote: “Another person is the connecting link between me and the world. I depend on the world and realize this dependence, I reconcile, I get closer to the world through another person. Without another person, the world would seem to me not only dead and empty, but also meaningless and unreasonable... The first object of a person is a person... the mediator between the Self and the consciousness of the world is the awareness of the second person.”

You can read about how the experience of childhood and adolescence manifests itself in adult life in the life stories of outstanding personalities, writers and directors, left in interviews and memoirs. For example, V. M. Shukshin said in his last interview: "I I went through a generally difficult life, and it disgusts me to say this, because it’s not easy for everyone. I came to the institute as a deeply rural person, far from art. It seemed to me that everyone could see it. I came to college too late - at the age of 25 - and my erudition was relative, and my knowledge was relative. It was difficult for me to study. Extremely. I gained knowledge abruptly and somehow with omissions. Besides, I had to learn what everyone knows and what I missed in life. And for the time being, I began to hide, perhaps, the strength I had gained. And, oddly enough, in some twisted way I fueled people’s confidence that it was right that you should be doing art, not me. But I knew, I knew in advance that I would be on the lookout for a moment in life when... well, I would turn out to be more wealthy, and they, with their endless statements about art, would turn out to be not wealthy.

All the time I was burying within myself from prying eyes an unknown, some kind of secret fighter, undecipherable. Now I don’t want to put myself in the position and position of another person - I’ve already gotten used to this way of living and working. I don’t want to make any advances, any statements. It’s okay if I keep silent one more time. Nothing will happen if I don’t say something like that about myself; I’ll know about it. And I want to say that now it’s difficult for me to change the way I act, after I’ve already lived like this for a fair number of years, went through college, went through the first period of winning the right to work in art - that was also the case. And I got used to this way of life. Imagine, such a stupid thing, in general, but everyone seems to have to deny me this matter - the right to art...” L. N. Tolstoy wrote about the importance of childhood memories carried throughout life and creativity. The great Russian director A. A. Tarkovsky once said that “... the only genuine, undistorted memories that a person can have are childhood memories.” They are reflected in many of the master’s paintings; it is worth remembering, for example, his feature film “Mirror”.

The concept of “socialization” appeared relatively recently. Previously, the word “education” was used more often. How are they different? Education is, rather, a pedagogical process, an established term denoting the one-sided influence of a teacher on a child, the purpose of which is “to transfer socio-historical experience to new generations; systematic and purposeful influence on the consciousness and behavior of a person in order to form certain attitudes, concepts, principles, value orientations, providing the necessary conditions for his development...” The term “socialization” is broader than “education”. Today, there are different definitions of this concept, depending on the point of view of their authors. Let's name just a few of them

1. Socialization is the process of a person’s entry into society (Kon I.S.).

2. Socialization is a two-way process, which includes, on the one hand, the individual’s assimilation of social experience by entering the social environment, a system of social connections; on the other hand...the process of active reproduction of a system of social connections by an individual due to his active activity, active inclusion in the social environment...".

3. Socialization as the process of people accumulating experience and social attitudes corresponding to their social roles (N. J. Smelser).

The appearance of the term “socialization” is associated with the activities of Tardgues, J. Piaget, E. Durkheim at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. In 1897 Fr. H. Giddings in the book “The Theory of Socialization” used this term to refer to the “development of the social nature or character” of a person.

At the beginning of the 20th century. the founders of symbolic interactionism (C. Cooley, M. Mead, Park, Thomas, etc.) wrote that the opportunity to “become a person” is associated with the development of speech communication. They did not use the term “socialization”, but analyzed the ways of becoming an individual who achieves both success and full participation in the life of various social groups. Representatives of symbolic interactionism are distinguished by a socially oriented view of the human problem:

1. A person, like society, is a product of role interaction and communication between people.

2. Self-awareness and value orientation of an individual seem to mirror the reactions to it of people who are in direct interaction. C. Cooley: “Just as we see our face, figure and clothes in the mirror, and they are of interest to us because they belong to us... so in our imagination we try to imagine how our appearance and manners are reflected in the thoughts of other people , goals, actions, character, friends, etc., and this affects us in a certain way.”

3. The concept of “primary ideals” is the basic values ​​that a child learns by the age of 5–6 in the primary group, a family in which affective relationships exist.

Proponents of behaviorism argue that human behavior and personality itself are composed of reactions to external stimuli. The task of socialization is the formation of the necessary set of conditioned social reactions of a person to social stimuli, ensuring his successful adaptation in society.

According to the psychoanalytic approach, a person, when born, is driven only by biological instincts, the main ones of which are the need for food and sexual instinct. The task of society is to teach a person cultural behavior and the ability to control his instincts. To achieve this, society, represented by parents and other adults, creates various kinds of obstacles, overcoming which a person learns to fulfill cultural requirements and norms. These obstacles are experienced as frustrations. Frustration is “objectively insurmountable (or subjectively perceived) difficulties that arise on the way to achieving a goal or solving a problem” (Levitov, 1967).

A special case of frustration is a collision of a strong need within us with a coercive imperative (a required norm of behavior). Regardless of whether we give in to this need or not, the situation is perceived as frustrating. In the process of overcoming frustrations, the child develops fixation- “a defensive tactic that allows one to avoid suffering, which is found by chance when trying to cope with a difficult situation and from then on is repeated automatically with each similar threat.”

§ 2. Content of the process of socialization of the individual

Psychoanalysis examines the personality process through the passage of stages, at each of which the child overcomes frustrations and fixations are formed. Experiences acquired in early childhood are the basis for human behavior throughout life. Important results of the socialization process for a person are the feeling of guilt and conscience, which are formed in childhood. 3. Freud introduced the concept of “identification,” which explains the mechanism that allows successful adaptation in childhood. Identification can be considered as a process of assimilation of moral norms and values ​​accepted in a given culture through identifying oneself with a significant other who is the bearer of this culture, and as a defense mechanism that allows one to overcome or adapt to a frustrating situation for the child.

According to the concept of humanistic psychology (K. Rogers, R. Burns, V. Satir and others), the main achievement of the socialization process is the formation in a person of a sense of self-worth, which largely determines the characteristics of his behavior, reactions to other people, and ways of experiencing life’s difficulties. It is formed if a child grows up in love, that is, unconditional acceptance by those closest to him.

Socialization of the individual, according to E. Erikson, takes place throughout life, until the individual becomes mature, that is, “a wise Indian, a true gentleman and a peasant.” E. Erikson's concept of the socialization process includes such concepts as infantile conflicts and human ages corresponding to the stages of socialization, which are accompanied by important socio-psychological personal acquisitions. Psychological development passes through critical stages, and the word “critical” here means a characteristic of turning points, decisive moments of choice between progress and regression, integration and delay. The scientist writes: “.Each existing culture, in order to develop its own special style of personal integrity, presupposed by its historical place, uses its own special combination of infantile conflicts along with specific impulses and prohibitions of infantile sexuality.

Infantile conflicts only become productive when they receive strong support from cultural institutions and ruling classes. In order to achieve and experience a state of personal integrity, an individual must imagine how to become a follower of people and idols who embody religion and politics, economic order and technology. Personal individuality therefore presupposes emotional integration, allowing participation in activity through the following of "idols" - as well as the acceptance of responsibility for consequences.

While developing the theory of personality socialization, scientists paid attention to various aspects of this process. L. Kohlberg (1963) attached great importance to the moral development of the individual, believing that it goes through six stages. Without linking them to a specific age, Kohlberg believed that most people reach at least the third stage of moral development, and some remain morally immature throughout their lives.

The first two stages relate to childhood, when the child has not yet acquired ideas about “what is good and what is bad.” The first stage is characterized by the child’s desire to avoid punishment, and the second stage is characterized by the desire to receive encouragement from adults.

Only at the third stage of moral development does a person begin to clearly recognize and take into account the opinions of others and strive to act in such a way as to gain their approval. At this stage, a person develops his own ideas about good and bad, he still strives to adapt to others and earn social approval.

At the fourth stage, a person becomes aware of the interests of society and the rules of behavior in it. A manifestation of moral consciousness can be the behavior of a person who returned extra money to a cashier who gave too much change because “it’s the right thing.” According to L. Kohlberg, at the third and fourth stages a person is able to perform highly moral actions regardless of generally accepted values.

A person at the fifth stage of moral development is able to see possible contradictions between different moral beliefs. He is able to make generalizations, to imagine what would happen if all people acted in a certain way. He forms his own judgments about what is good and what is bad. He understands the relativity of moral requirements, for example, a “white lie” that spares the feelings of another person can be justified.

The sixth stage of moral development of the individual is the highest. A person has formed his own ethical sense, universal and consistent moral principles. Kohlberg believes that people who have reached this level of moral development are devoid of egocentrism; they make the same demands on themselves as on any other person. According to N. J. Smelser (1999), Mahatma Gandhi, Jesus Christ, Martin Luther King were thinkers who reached this highest stage of moral development.

L. Kohlberg's theory has both its followers and critics. The criticism is explained by the difficulty of determining people's behavior, which does not fully correspond to one or another stage. Even if they are at the same stage, they may behave differently in similar situations.