James Cook's discoveries

James Cook (born October 27 (November 7), 1728 – died February 14, 1779) - English naval sailor, explorer, cartographer and discoverer, member of the Royal Society and captain of the Royal Navy. He led three round-the-world expeditions to explore the World Ocean.

Main events of the biography. Expeditions

1759 - 1760 - Explored and mapped the banks of the Canadian St. Lawrence River.

1763 - 1766 - Mapped the shores of Newfoundland.

1768 - 1771 - First Pacific expedition: explored Tahiti and the Community Islands. Mapped the coasts of New Zealand and eastern Australia.

1772 - 1775 - Second trip around the world: explored Tahiti and New Zealand, visited the Marquesas Islands, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides and other islands of Polynesia and Macranesia. For the first time in history he crossed the Antarctic Circle. Explored South Georgia and South Sandwich.

1776 - 1780 - Third voyage around the world: search for the Northwest Passage from the west coast of the North American continent. Return to New Zealand and Tahiti. Visited the Hawaiian Islands.

Explored the west coast of America from Oregon to Point Barrow, Alaska.

1779 - In 1779 he was killed in a skirmish with the Hawaiians.

Whatever may be the public opinion of my voyage, I must, with a feeling of true satisfaction, asking for no other reward than the acknowledgment that I have done my duty, conclude... the report as follows: The facts confirm that we have proved the possibility of preserving the health of a large crew in long voyages, in different climatic conditions, with tireless work.

James Cook. "Journey to the South Pole and Around the World"

One of the most prominent figures in the history of discovery. A man of the Age of Enlightenment, James Cook was not only a discoverer and conqueror of new lands, gaining fame and fortune or opening up new routes to trade. Thanks to his voyages, he became an authority on scientific issues.

Walter Kremer. "300 travelers"

James Cook is one of the most prominent English navigators. He was the leader of three round-the-world expeditions. He discovered many islands in the Pacific Ocean, the Great Barrier Reef and the east coast of Australia, and found out the island location of New Zealand. I made attempts to find the Southern continent - Antarctica. A bay near the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska, a group of islands in Polynesia, a strait between both islands of New Zealand, and others bear his name.

Childhood

1728, October 27 - the ninth child was born into a poor family of a Yorkshire farmhand in the village of Marton, who later gained fame as a national hero of England and strengthened its influence in the Pacific region.

His life was not easy, full of tireless work and perseverance in achieving his goal. Already at the age of seven, the boy began working on the Airy-Holm farm, owned by the landowner Thomas Scottow. It was he who helped the talented child receive a primary education, sending James to school at his own expense.

A few years later, Cook, in the seaside village of Stay, entered the service of the grocery and haberdashery merchant William Sanders, who later claimed that even in his youth, the future traveler was distinguished by his maturity of judgment and subtle calculation. Perhaps it was here, seeing the sea for the first time, that Cook felt his true calling, since a year and a half later, much before the expiration of the 4-year contract, he signed up as an apprentice on the sailing ship "Free Love", transporting coal. Cook retained his love for “coal miners” until the end of his life. He considered these ships the most suitable for long-term voyages in uncharted waters.

First successes

1752 - the smart and powerful Cook became the assistant captain on the ship "Friendship". It was in this position that he found himself at the beginning of the Seven Years' War, when his ship was in the port of London. After some hesitation, the young man volunteered for the English navy, wanting, as he himself said, “to try his luck along the way.” And it didn’t let him down. Just 3 years later, in 1759, Cook received his first officer rank and sailed to Canada on the ship Mercury, sent to conduct military operations on the river. St. Lawrence. There he was able to distinguish himself by taking measurements in the river fairway at the risk of his life and drawing up an accurate map.

After the war ended, Cook concentrated on improving his education. Persistently, without anyone's help, he mastered geometry and astronomy, so much so that his colleagues who studied in expensive special schools were amazed by the depth of his knowledge. He himself assessed his “learning” more modestly.

James Cook's further career, thanks to his unparalleled hard work, intelligence and insight, continuously went up. 1762, September - while participating in military operations against the French in Newfoundland, he made a detailed inventory of Placentia Bay and a topographical survey of its shores, examined the navigation conditions between the island of Newfoundland and the Labrador Peninsula. The result of his labors were eight accurate maps of these places.

Pacific Expedition

1768 - The British Admiralty organized a Pacific expedition to observe the passage of the planet Venus through the disk of the Sun in Tahiti. In addition to the official one, other goals were pursued: to prevent the seizure of new lands by other powers, to resume the creation of strongholds and bases in the region to establish British control here. Great importance was attached to the discovery of new rich lands and the development of trade in “colonial goods,” including slaves. The most suitable candidate as the head of the expedition turned out to be James Cook, who is not yet widely known, but has proven himself well in professional circles.

The lieutenant personally selected a bark on the Thames (the three-masted ship "Endeavour" - "Attempt"), which left the mouth of the Thames on June 30, 1768, with a crew of 84 people, and in January 1769, having passed Madeira, the Canary Islands, wa Cape Verde, has already rounded Cape Horn and entered the Pacific Ocean. Thus began the Pacific epic of James Cook, which immortalized his name and turned him into a legend.

On April 13, the expedition reached Tahiti, where on June 3, under excellent weather conditions, astronomical observations of Venus were made. From here Cook turned west and rediscovered the Society Islands, named after the London Scientific Society; then he circled New Zealand, finding out that it was a double island, which refuted the opinion of Tasman, who considered it part of the legendary Southern continent.

The next discoveries were the discovery of the previously unknown eastern coast of Australia, the Great Barrier Reef, and the rediscovery of the Torres Strait. Cook's ships eventually sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and returned to England in 1771, completing a voyage that lasted 2 years and 9.5 months. Accurate maps of all surveyed areas were compiled. Tahiti and the surrounding islands were declared possessions of the English crown.

Second trip around the world

The second trip around the world, which lasted from 1772 to 1775, had an even greater resonance. They began to talk about Cook as the new Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan.

The mission of the expedition was associated with the search for the Southern Continent, which had been unsuccessfully searched for by seafarers for several centuries. different countries. The Admiralty, greatly impressed by Cook's success, allocated two ships to solve this difficult task.

For almost three years, Resolution and Adventure, James Cook's new ships, were at sea. Leaving Plymouth on June 13, 1772, he was the first of the circumnavigators to explore the entire previously unknown part of the Pacific Ocean between 60° and 70° south. latitude, while crossing the Antarctic Circle twice and reaching 70°10? Yu. w. After discovering huge icebergs and ice fields, Cook became convinced that "the risk involved in sailing in these unexplored and ice-covered seas is so great that ... no man will ever venture further south than I have done" and that lands that "may be in the South will never be explored."

Cook was mistaken, and his mistake - the captain’s authority was so great - slowed down the search for Antarctica for several decades. On his second voyage, Cook discovered South Georgia Island, the South Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, and Norfolk; he also continued research and measurement work.

Third trip around the world

Reconstruction of the Endeavor

Cook rested for a year, receiving a long leave, and on July 12, 1776, he set off on his third and final journey. On the ships "Resolution" and "Discovery", he, now with the rank of captain, sailed in search of a trade route from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean around North America - the long-wanted northwest passage.

In this expedition, the group of Hawaiian Islands, named after the then head of the Admiralty by the Sandwich Islands, was rediscovered, the still completely unknown northwestern coast of America, right up to Alaska, was mapped, and the location of Asia and America relative to each other was clarified. In search of the northwest passage, travelers reached 70°41? With. w. near Cape Ledyany, where the ships' path was blocked by pack ice. The expedition turned south, and in November 1778 the crew landed again in the Hawaiian Islands.

Death of James Cook

There a tragedy known to the whole world took place. The Hawaiians had an ancient legend about the god O-Rono, who was supposed to return to Hawaii on a floating island. The priest O-Rono declared Cook a god. The honors given by the islanders were unpleasant to the navigator. However, believing that this would make the team’s stay in Hawaii safer, he did not dissuade the natives.

And among them, a complex struggle between the interests of priests and warriors began. The captain's divine origin was questioned. There was a desire to check it out. Theft at the expedition's camp led to clashes with the natives. The situation became tense, and in one of the clashes, on February 14, 1779, James Cook was killed with a spear to the back of the head. The Hawaiians took the corpse with them, and the next day the priests - friends of the captain - wept and brought back the pieces of the body that they had received during the division. Yielding to the demands of the sailors, Captain Clerk, who replaced Cook, allowed the Hawaiians to be dealt with. The sailors mercilessly killed everyone they came across on their way and burned villages. The natives sued for peace and returned the body parts, which the crew delivered to the sea with great honor.

Contributions made to the history of geographical discoveries

Cook's activities were assessed ambiguously by contemporaries and later researchers. Like any talented and bright personality, he had his fans and enemies. Father and son, Johann and Georg Forster, took part in the second voyage as natural scientists. The elder's beliefs, strongly influenced by Rousseau's ideas about "natural" man, made him a serious opponent of Cook's assessment of many travel situations, especially those related to the relationship between Europeans and natives. Forster was mercilessly critical of Cook's actions and often idealized the islanders.

Serious disagreements arose between the scientist and the captain immediately upon returning from the voyage. Both Forsters categorically refused to adhere to the official plan of travel notes outlined by the Admiralty. Finally, Johann had to give an undertaking not to publish his own account of the trip. But he handed over his notes to Georg, who processed them and still published them three months earlier than Cook’s notes were published. And in 1778, Forster Sr. published his “Observations Made During a Voyage Around the World.”

Both books by the Forsters became an interesting commentary on the notes of their former boss and forced their contemporaries to look somewhat differently at the “valiant” and “merciful” behavior of the British during the expedition. At the same time, painting idyllic pictures of heavenly prosperity on the islands of the southern seas, both naturalists sinned against the truth. Therefore, in everything related to the life, religion and culture of the natives, the notes of Cook, a man of a clear and cold mind, are more accurate, although the works of the Forsters for a long time served as a kind of encyclopedia of the countries of the South Seas and were extremely popular.

The dispute between the captain and the scientists has not been resolved to this day. And now not a single serious publication about James Cook can do without quotes or references to the Forsters. Nevertheless, Cook was and remains the brightest star in the constellation of Earth discoverers; he provided his contemporaries with many accurate, objective observations of the nature, customs and morals of the inhabitants of the territories he visited.

It is not difficult to verify this: all three books by J. Cook were published in Russian: “The First Voyage of Captain James Cook. Sailing on the Endeavor in 1768–1771." (M., 1960), “James Cook’s second circumnavigation of the world. Voyage to the South Pole and around the world in 1772–1775,” (M., 1964), “The third voyage of Captain James Cook. Sailing in the Pacific Ocean in 1776–1780." (M., 1971). Despite the distance of what is written from our time, the books are read with keen interest and carry a lot of information, including about the personalities of the captain himself and the people who surrounded him.

Roald Amundsen and the search for the Northwest Passage. Amundsen was born into a family of Norwegian shipowners. Despite his mother's promises to become a doctor, Roald joined the family business after her death. His first expedition was the Belgian Antarctic Expedition of 1897-1899, where he was Adrien de Gerlache's first mate. The first independent expedition led by Amundsen aimed to find the Northwest Passage (presumably connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in the north) in 1903. This elusive passage has been the target of many explorers since 1539. It was then that Cortez instructed Francisco Uloa to sail along the Baja Peninsula in California. Amundsen began his journey with six crew members on a 47-ton steel sealhunter ship called Ioa. The journey began in the Baffin Sea, the movement began decisively, but then the team settled down for the winter, disappearing from public view for two whole years. During this time, Roald became friends with the Eskimos, learning a lot from them. The Norwegian learned how to survive in the eternal cold by learning to use sled dogs and wear skins instead of woolen jackets. At this time, Amundsen also managed to make several scientific notes on magnetism. The expedition then headed around the southern coast of Victoria Island and along the northern coast of Canada and Alaska. From the coast of this state, the last stage of the expedition began, 800 kilometers inland to the town of Eagle City, where there was a telegraph. From here Amundsen announced his success to the whole world on December 5, 1905. Having spent the winter there, the traveler arrived in Oslo only in 1906. Amundsen saw the separation of Norway from Sweden, reporting his achievement for all of Norway to the new king, Haakon. But Amundsen did not stop in his desire for new discoveries, becoming the first person to reach the South Pole and one of the first to fly over the North Pole by air.

Hernan Cortez and the fall of the Aztec Empire. Hernán Cortés was born in 1485 in Medellin, in what was then the Kingdom of Castile in Spain. He entered the University of Salamanca when he was fourteen years old, but soon became tired of his studies and returned to Medellin. At this moment, news about the discovery of Columbus came to the country. Cortez quickly assessed the prospects of conquering new lands and in 1504 he left for the New World. The Spaniard planned to become a colonist on the island of Hispaniola (now the island of Haiti). It was there that he registered as a citizen upon arrival. In 1506, Cortés took an active part in the conquest of Haiti and Cuba and was rewarded with real estate and Indian slaves. In 1518 he led an expedition to Mexico. But the Spanish governor, fearing competition from Cortes, canceled the campaign. This did not stop Cortez; he still set off. In February 119, he was accompanied by 11 ships, 500 men, 13 horses and several cannons. Arriving on the Yucatan Peninsula, Cortes burned his ships, thus cutting off his way back. Here the explorer met with Jeronimo de Aguillare, a Spanish priest who survived a shipwreck and was captured by the Mayans. Over time, he became Cortez's translator. In March, Yucatan was declared a Spanish possession, and Hernan himself received 20 young women as tribute from the conquered tribes, one of whom, Malinche, became his mistress and the mother of his child Martin. The woman became not just a concubine, but also a translator and adviser. The Spaniard quickly won over thousands of Indians who were tired of Aztec domination, promising them independence. When Cortés entered the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, in November 1519, he was greeted by Emperor Montezuma II. He considered Cortez to be the incarnation and messenger of the god Quetzalcoatl. The abundance of golden gifts and wealth around turned the Spaniard’s head, and the authorities decided to return their obstinate explorer. When Cortez learned that a group of troops was heading towards him from Cuba, he left part of his troops in Tenochtitlan, and he himself went to the Valley of Mexico City. When Cortes returned to the city, a rebellion broke out there. In 1521, the Aztec troops were suppressed, and their entire empire was conquered. Until 1524, Cortes ruled all of Mexico.

Charles Darwin's Voyage on the Beagle. Charles Darwin was born in 1809. Even before attending school, he developed a keen interest in natural history and collecting. While studying medicine at the University of Edinburgh, Darwin quickly realized that this field was not for him. Instead, he became interested in taxidermy under the tutelage of John Edmonstone, who had accompanied Charles Waterton on his journey through the rainforests of South America. In his second year of study, Darwin joined the Plinian Scientific Society, becoming a member of the group for the study of natural history. There he began to study the classification of plants and animals. Darwin's father, dissatisfied with his son's studies, decided to transfer him to study at Cambridge. An important role was played by a letter from John Henslowe, a friend of Charles and a professor of botany. He proposed Darwin's candidacy as a free naturalist for the captain of the Beagle, Robert Fitzroy. Charles immediately accepted the offer to participate in a two-year expedition to the South American coast. The journey began on December 27, 1831 and lasted almost 5 years. Darwin spent most of his time examining geological specimens and collecting natural history collections. At this time, the ship itself was exploring the coast. The expedition route ran from Portsmouth, England to St. Jago (now Santiago), Darwin visited Cape Verde, Brazil and Patagonia, Chile and the Galapagos Islands. Then there was the south coast of Australia, Cocos Islands, Cape Town and South Africa. During the expedition, Charles did not use any clear instructions. However, in his work he used the works of several famous geologists and naturalists. After all, during his time at the university, Darwin was influenced by Robert Grant, William Paley (The Proof of Christianity), John Henslow, Alexander von Humboldt (Personal Narrative) and John Herschel. During his travels, Darwin became acquainted with thousands of species. When the scientist returned home and tried to catalog his collection, ideas began to form in his head that served as the basis for the fundamental work “On the Origin of Species” and the entire theory of evolution. This work became decisive in the life of the scientist, placing his name in history.

Ferdinand Magellan and the first trip around the world. Magellan was born in 1480 in Sabroso, Portugal. When the boy was only 10 years old, his parents died. Little Fernand became Queen Eleanor's page. Already in his youth, the future navigator visited Egypt, India and Malaysia. But Magellan’s projects did not please the royal family, and in 1517 he, together with the cosmographer Faleiro, offered his services to the Spanish crown. At that time, the Treaty of Tordesillas divided the New World between Portugal and Spain. Magellan calculated that the border Moluccas islands belonged to the Spaniards, offering them his services in finding a way to them. The expedition was approved by King Charles V, and on September 20, 1519, Magellan left the country with 5 ships. The crew included 234 men from Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece and France. Initially, the expedition's route lay in Brazil, and then along the South American coast to San Julian, in Patagonia. They spent the winter there, and there was also an attempted rebellion. Part of the team demanded to return back to Spain. Magellan harshly suppressed the rebellion, executing the leader and shackling his accomplices. In September 1520, the expedition discovered the Strait of Magellan. By that time there were three ships left. The South Sea was called the Pacific Ocean by the navigator because there were no storms on it. After the landing on the island of Guam, a grueling raid to the Philippine Islands followed. Magellan sailed there in the spring of 1521. The Spaniard decided to subordinate the local lands to the crown and got involved in an internecine war between the two local tribes. Ferdinand Magellan himself died during the battles. The survivors were forced to scuttle one ship, and another one turned back. Only the Victoria with 18 survivors under the leadership of Captain Juan Elcano, a former rebel, reached Spain on September 8, 1522. Interestingly, this is not how Magellan’s voyage was planned. In principle, a trip around the world could not have a commercial effect. Only under the threat of attack by the Portuguese did Victoria continue to move west.

Travels of Marco Polo. This researcher is the earliest on our list. But it was he who inspired many of his followers to new geographical discoveries. Marco was born in Venice probably in 1254. Both his father, Niccolo, and uncle Matteo were wealthy merchants who traded with the Middle East. When Marco was born, his father was away; they saw each other only 15 years later. The family was reunited for two years in Venice, after which the merchants traveled to China in 1271. They were sent there with letters from Pope Gregory X to Kublai Khan, whom the elder Polo had met during a previous expedition. The journey took us through Armenia, Persia, Afghanistan, the Pamir Mountains, along the Silk Road through the Gobi Desert and all the way to Beijing. Such a long journey took three whole years! Marco Polo spent the next 15 years of his life as a Chinese government official, serving as both Khan's ambassador and governor of the city of Yangzhou. With the help of Khan and his servants, the merchant learned the Mongolian language. The Italian also conducted several expeditions to areas of China, India and Burma that were hitherto unknown. In 1291, the khan gave one of his princesses in marriage to the Persian Ilkhan, and allowed the Polo family to accompany the delegation. The Italians spent time in Sumatra and Ceylon and returned to Venice through Iran and the Black Sea. The further history of the researcher’s life is little known. He participated in the war with Genoa and was captured in 1298. While in captivity, Polo met the writer Rusticiano, who helped the merchant write down stories about his travels. The published book, known as The Travels of Marco Polo, became one of the most popular in medieval Europe. It should be noted that the Italian’s discoveries would not have been possible without his father and uncle, who had already paved the way to China by establishing contacts with the Great Khan.

Travels of Livingston and Stanley. Dr. David Livingstone was a missionary sent to Africa in 1841. He decided to explore the inner world of the continent when it suddenly turned out that the mission in Kolobeng, where he worked, was closing. It was Livingstone who first discovered Victoria Falls and became one of the first Europeans to make a transcontinental journey through Africa. Then the Englishman’s attention was drawn to the source of the Nile, the mystery of which is already more than three thousand years old. His journey began from Zanzibar along the Ruvuma River to Lake Malawi and then to Ujiji on the shores of Lake Tanganyika. By that time, Livingston was left practically alone, most of his cargo and medicines had been stolen. No wonder David got sick. But he stubbornly moved on, discovering lakes Mveru and Bangweulu. By the end of March 1871, the Englishman reached the Lualaba River, believing that its source was the source of the Nile. But unable to travel further, Livingston returned to Ujiji, where he discovered that all his fresh water supplies had been stolen. Although it was no longer possible to travel further, Livingston’s discoveries became priceless - no one had ever climbed so deep into the heart of Africa. By that time, rumors about the disappearance of Livingston's expedition and his death filled Europe and America. This information attracted the attention of a young American journalist, Henry Morton Stanley. Born in Wales and orphaned as a child, he moved to the New World at the age of eighteen. The young man began working for merchant Henry Stanley, and when he died, he took his name and joined the Confederate army. At the end Civil War Stanley became a journalist, working for the New York Herald newspaper. It was this publication that financed the expedition to find the Livingstone expedition launched in Zanzibar. Stanley followed the path of his predecessor, facing many of the same problems - desertion and tropical diseases. Stanley found Livingstone ailing at Ujiji on October 27, 1871. The Englishman stood among a group of Arab slave traders, and the journalist greeted him with the phrase that later became famous: “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” Stanley's expedition numbered about 200 experienced porters, most of whom fled or died along the way. At the same time, Stanley flogged those who refused to go further. But Livingston walked along with freed slaves, twelve sepoys and two faithful servants from previous journeys. It was they who delivered the body of the explorer who died in 1873 to the coast, from where it was delivered to England.

Lewis and Clark. Expansion to the west. In 1803, America turned its attention to the West, to Louisiana. The American government did not really know what lands had previously been acquired from France. That is why President Thomas Jefferson instructed Congress to allocate $2,500 for the expedition, which was prepared just a few weeks after the deal was completed. The exploration was to be led by Army Captain Merriweather Lewis, who chose William Clark as his partner. In May 1804, 3 sergeants and 22 soldiers, as well as volunteers, translators and slaves - a total of 43 people - set off with them. The expedition began moving up the Missouri River, then wintered with the Mandan Indians. In the spring, the path lay in the upper reaches of the river, then the continental divide was crossed. Lewis and Clark crossed the Rocky Mountains to find the Columbia River. Fort Claptsop was built at its mouth. Walking along the river, the Americans reached the Pacific Ocean. On their way back from the Rocky Mountains, the group split into three parts, reuniting later and returning in triumph to St. Louis. The city greeted them on September 23, 1806 as heroes. The 28-month journey proved that there was an overland transcontinental route. Lewis and Clark brought with them a lot of information, including a map of their route, descriptions of Indian culture, and observations of environment. On their journey, the brave Americans were not spared the help of the indigenous people. So, a young Indian woman from the Sacagawea Shoshone tribe, who carried her young son on her back for thousands of kilometers, decided to go with them. Her knowledge and relationships with people greatly determined the success of the mission.

Sir Edmund Hillary and the first successful conquest of Everest. Edmund Hillary was born in Auckland, New Zealand on July 20, 1919. At the local university he studied mathematics and science. Edmund then took up beekeeping, climbing several peaks in his spare time with his twin brother. At the outbreak of World War II, he decided to join the Air Force, but withdrew his application before it could be considered. But soon, thanks to the call, Hillary nevertheless joined the Air Force as a navigator. In 1951 and 1952, as part of British intelligence officers, he explored the approaches to Everest and Cho Oyu. In 1953, Hillary decided to climb the highest peak in the world. At that time, the road to Everest from Chinese Tibet was closed, and the Nepalese government allowed only one expedition per year. In 1952, the Swiss failed due to bad weather; the next year it was the British's turn. The head of the expedition, Tom Hunt, created two teams for the ascent. Hillary was in the same group with the experienced Norgay Tenzig. In total, the expedition had 362 porters, 20 guides and about 4 tons of cargo. The first attempt to conquer the peak was made by Bourdillon and Evans, but they did not reach the summit due to a breakdown in the oxygen supply system. On May 28, Hillary and Tenzig with three companions began their assault on Everest. The overnight stay took place at an altitude of 8500 meters, from where the brave climbers continued their journey together. On May 29 at 11:30 am local time, the pair reached the top. They stayed there for only 15 minutes. During this time, they took pictures, left a chocolate bar as an offering to the gods, and hoisted a flag. The first person to greet the heroes was George Lowe, Hillary's best friend. He went up to meet the couple with hot soup. For their efforts, Hillary and expedition leader Hunt received knighthoods from the Queen, and Tenzig was awarded a medal. Hunt became a life peer, and Hillary received many awards and lifelong recognition. Hillary's feat would not have been possible without the participation of Norgay Tenzing, a Nepalese Sherpa. He was born in 1914 and had extensive experience in Himalayan expeditions. He has already taken part in 6 previous attempts to conquer Everest. Norgay initially joined the expedition as Sherpa leader, but when he saved Hillary from falling into a crevasse, he was seen as an ideal climbing partner.

Christopher Columbus and the discovery of America. This explorer, one of the most famous in the world, was born in Genoa, Italy in 1451. Columbus's father was a weaver, the young man had to continue this business. But in 1472 the family moved to Savona, and Christopher himself began to take part in sea voyages, enlisting in the Portuguese merchant fleet. Perhaps as early as 1474, during correspondence with the astronomer and geographer Toscanelli, Columbus thought about finding a sea route to India through the West. However, for a long time this project was not in demand. Only in 1492, Columbus, with the participation of King Ferdinand II of Spain and Queen Isabella, was able to equip the expedition. On August 3, 1492, three ships left the harbor of Palos - the Santa Maria, Nina and Pinta. They visited the Canary Islands, which belong to Castile, and sailed across the Atlantic Ocean for five weeks. And then at 2 o’clock in the morning on October 12, 1492, the sailor Rodrigo de Triana saw land from aboard the Pinta. The found island was named San Salvador, it was one of the Bahamas. Columbus further discovered the islands of Espagliola (Haiti), which was similar to the lands of Castile, and Juan (Cuba). During the expedition, Columbus met the Arawak Indians, whom he initially mistook for poor Chinese. Returning to Spain, he kidnapped about 25 of them, only seven survived. Columbus returned to Palos on March 15, 1493 and was appointed admiral of the Sea-Ocean and governor-general of all already and future lands found. Subsequently, Columbus made three more voyages to the New World, increasingly adding to the map of the modern Caribbean. In his search, Columbus had practically no like-minded people, because his ideas were quite strange for the Western world. Only Columbus’s mistake was that, while looking for Asia, he found a new continent, although he convinced the Spaniards of the opposite. In his assessment of the project, Columbus used the works of Marco Polo, Imago Mundi and Ptolemy’s estimates of the Earth’s circumference.

Neil Armstrong's first steps on the moon. Armstrong was born on August 5, 1930 in Wapakoneta, Ohio. At an early age the boy became interested in airplanes. On his sixteenth birthday, Armstrong received a pilot's license, and in the basement of his house he was even able to build a wind tunnel. In it he conducted experiments with airplane models. After two years of study at Purdue University, he was called to active duty. military service, flying 78 combat missions during the Korean War. Upon returning from the war, Armstrong earned a degree in aeronautical engineering. Then there was a position as a test pilot at NASA. In September 1962, Armstrong became America's first civilian astronaut and began his training in Houston, Texas. Neil was a reserve pilot for Gemini 5 and flew into space on Gemini 8 in 1966. Armstrong was noted for being able to troubleshoot the aircraft and regain control of the aircraft, making an emergency landing just 1.1 miles from the intended landing site. The astronaut began to prepare for the flight on Gemini 11, but was selected for the team preparing for the flight to the Moon. In January 1969, it was Neil Armstrong who was chosen as commander of the Apollo 11 mission, which was supposed to deliver earthlings to the satellite. At 9:32 am on July 16, 1969, a crew consisting of Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin Aldrin took off from the Kennedy Space Center. The successful journey to the moon took four days. The team landed on the Moon on July 20 and was broadcast around the world on radio and television. At 10:56 p.m., Armstrong became the first man to set foot on the moon. His phrase: “That’s one small step for a man, but one giant leap for all mankind” - immediately became famous. Armstrong and Aldrin spent two hours on the lunar surface, collecting soil samples, installing a television camera, a seismograph and a US flag. Such a great achievement by Armstrong and Apollo 11 would not have been possible without the help of a team of hundreds of assistants on Earth at Mission Control. Someone was responsible for the operation of each unit of the vehicle. They were all managed by the Flight Director, Gene Kranz, who also managed Gemini 4 and the odd Apollo mission. It is to Kranz that the crew of Apollo 13 is primarily grateful for their return home.

The first Russian circumnavigation 1803-1806 Ivan Krusenstern and Yuri Lisyansky

Kamchatka

The Nadezhda entered Avacha Bay on July 14, 1804. The population of Petropavlovsk at that time was about 200 people. Governor General Koshelev arrived here from Nizhnekamchatsk (then the capital of the peninsula), who in every possible way contributed to the repair of the ship and preparations for the visit to Japan. The doctor and the artist left the expedition, and the brawler Tolstoy was forcibly “written ashore.” On August 30, 1804, Nadezhda set course for Japan.

Japan

It is known from the history of Japan that any foreign ships were prohibited from entering Japanese ports. And residents of the Islands of the Rising Sun were strictly prohibited from contacting foreigners. Such forced self-isolation saved Japan from possible colonization and trade expansion by Europeans, and also contributed to the preservation of its identity. Only merchants of the Dutch East India Company were allowed to trade in the port of Nagasaki, the southernmost point of the country. The Dutch had a monopoly on trade with Japan and did not allow competitors into their possessions, hid sea maps with coordinates, etc. Therefore, Krusenstern had to guide the Nadezhda to Nagasaki almost at random, simultaneously surveying the Japanese coast.

To Nagasaki

Krusenstern's ship with Ambassador Rezanov entered Nagasaki harbor on October 8, 1804. On board the Russians were several Japanese, who had once fallen to the Russians as a result of the crash, and whom the expedition carried with them as translators.

A Japanese representative came onto the ship and asked hoo-is-hoo, they say where and why they arrived. Then the Japanese pilot helped the Nadezhda enter the harbor, where they dropped anchor. There were only Japanese, Chinese and Dutch ships in the harbor.

Negotiations with the Japanese

This topic deserves a separate story and a separate article. Let’s just say that the Japanese “blinded” the Russian “diplomatic mission” in the port of Nagasaki until April 18, 1805 - five and a half months! And Kruzenshtern and Rezanov had to go home without a sip.

The Japanese emperor “paused for a long time”, then replied through his officials that there would be no agreements with the Russians, and he could not accept the gifts of the Russian emperor - several huge mirrors in expensive frames. They say that Japan is not able to adequately thank the Russian emperor due to its poverty. Laughter, and that's all! Either the Dutch did a good job here, or the Japanese themselves did not want any contacts with Russia.

True, the Japanese administration supplied the ship with food all the time the ship was in port. And she loaded the road with food, water and plenty of salt completely free of charge. At the same time, Krusenstern was categorically forbidden to return along the western coast of Japan.

Return of "Nadezhda" to Kamchatka

Coming out of Japanese “captivity”, Kruzenshtern decided not to give a damn about the Japanese ban and went along the western coast, putting it on the map. At sea he was his own master and was not afraid of anyone - his past combat experience gave him every reason to do so. He landed on the shore several times and got to know this mysterious country as closely as he could. It was possible to establish contacts with the Ainu - residents of the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido.

Sakhalin

The Nadezhda entered Anivu Bay in the south of Sakhalin on May 14, 1805. The Ainu also lived here and the Japanese administration commanded. Kruzenshtern was determined to explore Sakhalin in more detail, but Rezanov insisted on returning to Kamchatka as soon as possible to report to St. Petersburg on the results of his “embassy”.

Kamchatka

On June 5, “Nadezhda” returned to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. Rezanov went ashore, sent a report to the capital, and he himself departed for Russian America to Alaska on a merchant ship. On July 5, 1805, Nadezhda again went to sea and headed for Sakhalin. But Krusenstern was unable to go around Sakhalin and determine whether it was an island or a peninsula. On August 30, the Nadezhda team entered Avachinskaya Bay of Petropavlovsk for the third time. Kruzenshtern began to prepare for a trip to Macau.

Macau

This is the name of a Portuguese colony-fortress-port on the Chinese coast. Leaving Petropavlovsk on October 9, 1805, “Nadezhda” was in Macau on November 20. The Neva was nowhere to be seen.

Travels of the Neva

Russian America

The sloop "Neva", under the leadership of Lieutenant-Commander Lisyansky, approached Kodiak Island on the southern coast of Alaska on July 10, 1804. The island was one of the first places of capital for the Russians to settle in America. Lisyansky brought the ship into the harbor of St. Paul - a kind of administrative center of this Russian province. Here he learned that an armed attack by the Indians there had been carried out on the second Russian center - the Arkhangelsk Fortress in Sitka Bay, significantly south and east of Kodiak. The fortress was burned and the inhabitants were killed. The conflict broke out not without the help and instigation of the Americans, by which time they began to actively penetrate these places.

Alexander Andreevich Baranov, the legendary ruler of Russian America, went “to war” to recapture the Arkhangelsk fortress with the help of Indians and Aleuts friendly to the Russians. Baranov left Lisyansky a message in which he asked him to urgently come to Sitka to provide armed assistance. However, it took the Neva crew almost a month to unload the ship’s holds and repair the equipment. On August 15, the Neva headed towards Sitka.

Novoarkhangelsk – Sitka

On August 20, Lisyansky was already in Sitka Bay. Here he met Alexander Baranov, who made a strong impression on him. Together they developed a plan for a military operation. The guns and sailors of the Neva played a decisive role in restoring the “status quo” in relations with the Tinklit Indians. Not far from the burned old fortress, a new settlement, Novoarkhangelsk, was founded. On November 10, the Neva left Sitka and headed for Kodiak.

Back in Kodiak

“Neva” arrived within five days. Since winter was approaching, it was decided to spend the winter here, make repairs, rest and fill the holds with precious junk - the furs of the Russian-American Company. At the beginning of the next summer, June 13, 1805, Lisyansky's ship left the harbor of St. Paul and headed for Sitka to pick up the furs Baranov had stored, and then go to Macau.

Again in Sitka - Novoarkhangelsk

The Neva arrived on June 22, 1805. Over the winter, Baranov managed to rebuild the settlement, restore peace with the local Indians, and prepare a large number of furs. Having loaded soft gold into the holds, Lisyansky set course for Macau on September 2, 1805.

To Macau

Krusenstern arrived in Macau on November 20, 1805. Lisyansky reached the Chinese shores only on December 3rd. Here I had to stay for more than two months, “getting used to” the local conditions, the economic and political situation, maneuvering, and bargaining. In this, both sailors Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky showed remarkable abilities. And they emerged victorious in the trade war with local merchants. Instead of furs, the holds of the ships were filled with tea, porcelain and other goods marketable in Europe. On February 9, 1806, “Nadezhda” and “Neva” left the Chinese coast and headed for their homeland.

Across two oceans

The ships were scattered on the approach to the Cape of Good Hope. The captains had previously agreed to meet off St. Helena. Krusenstern arrived in St. Helena on May 3, 1806. Here he learned that Russia was at war with Napoleon and France. Without waiting for the Neva, Nadezhda went north to her native land, deciding for safety to go around England from the north, so as not to collide with the French in the English Channel.

In the meantime, Lisyansky decided to set a kind of record - to go from China to Europe without calling at intermediate ports. The ship no longer had heavy loads, took enough supplies of food and water, and sailed with full sails. Therefore, Lisyansky did not appear on St. Helena Island and, accordingly, did not know about the war with France. He calmly entered the English Channel, and there he decided to call at the British port of Portsmouth. Having rested in Portsmouth for a couple of weeks, on July 13, 1806, the Neva went to sea again and was already home on August 5, 1806. And on August 19, 1806, the sails of the “Nadezhda” appeared in sight of their native shores.

Thus ended the first circumnavigation of Russian sailors, an unprecedented voyage filled with dangers and adventures, interesting and significant events for history.

It should be said that from the point of view of benefits, the expedition completely justified itself, bringing considerable profit to the merchants, glory to the Fatherland and forever inscribing the names of Russian navigators Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky in the history of navigation.

Emperor Alexander I royally awarded I.F. Kruzenshtern and all members of the expedition.

all officers received the following ranks,

commanders of the Order of St. Vladimir 3rd degree and 3000 rubles.

lieutenants 1000 each

midshipmen 800 rubles lifetime pension

lower ranks, if desired, were dismissed and awarded a pension of 50 to 75 rubles.

By the highest order, a special medal was knocked out for all participants in this first trip around the world

“A trip around the world in 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva”, under the command of Lieutenant-Commander Krusenstern” in 3 volumes, with an atlas of 104 maps and engraved paintings. This was the name of the work written personally by Kruzenshtern and published at the expense of the imperial cabinet., St. Petersburg, 1809. Subsequently it was translated into many European languages.

Russian travelers and pioneers

Again travelers of the era of great geographical discoveries

Our Pechora-Yugora journey began with the fact that we flew by plane to Naryan-Mar - the only city of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, and then by taxi we got to the Pechora River, where we collected our kayak on the beach of the village of Iskateley.

Pechora River

We started on the evening of June 28th. The weather did not spoil us from the very beginning - a headwind from the North-West was blowing, it was quite cold - only about 10 degrees. As a result, we walked along Pechora for almost eight days, instead of the planned three or four, because in addition to the resistance of the wind, which invariably blew in our faces, we also had to overcome a very steep and short oncoming wave.

The Pechora is a full-flowing river, so with such winds blowing against its powerful current, it becomes very difficult to pass. In some places we had to stand for a couple of days, waiting out bad weather. There was very high water on the river at that time, and its low banks were often completely flooded with water, above which only impassable thickets of willows protruded, so parking was very difficult.

Five days later the weather improved; one day a southwest wind blew, which was sideways for us and very convenient for sailing. Under sail we quickly moved even closer to the mouth, and two days later we successfully entered the Barents Sea. Now we had to overcome Bolvanskaya Bay - the first obstacle on our way. But the weather turned bad again. We did not dare to cross the bay directly and went around its perimeter under sail.

I must say that our sailing equipment this time was very good and allowed us to sail courses up to 45 degrees to the wind. We invented the spar, and ordered the sails themselves from the St. Petersburg master Sergei Novitsky, all the time I mentally thanked him.

The passage of the small Bolvanskaya Bay took several days. We could only sail for a short time, and most of the time we had to crawl slowly on the oars against the wind. The matter was further complicated by the extremely inconvenient bottom in the lip: it was extremely shallow here, and at low tide the lip dried out many hundreds of meters from the shore, and then the depth for several kilometers reached, God forbid, 15-20 centimeters. With such depth, of course, it is very difficult to walk, scratching your belly.

By the way, here we managed to lose our only compass. What a shame - now you will have to navigate only by the sun, watches and maps.

In the sea

But everything comes to an end, and on July 11 we left Bolvanskaya Bay behind, went to the village of Fariha, where we drank tea with a local fisherman and asked him about the local weather and sailing conditions. After that, we moved further to the northeast, passed the no longer working oil terminal in the village of Dresvyanka, and three days later we reached a weather station located ten kilometers west of Cape Konstantinovsky, where we again met fishermen, after talking with them, we went further. Having walked quite a bit from the weather station, we stood on a rather uncomfortable, low and swampy place.

The next day the weather began to deteriorate, a westerly wind rose, favorable to us, but too strong to go further. A day later, a real storm began, which drove a huge amount of water from the ocean onto the shore, because of which its level increased, and our camp was literally almost washed away. We managed to evacuate to a higher place about half an hour before the sea flooded the tundra several kilometers away from the usual coastline.

On July 17, the storm ended and a calm easterly breeze blew again. We rowed further, reaching Cape Gorelka. During the day the weather deteriorated, it began to rain, and the next morning the wind again set to the west and intensified. Having left, we raised the sail, but the transition was limited to fifteen minutes: the wind suddenly increased, it became stormy, and we hastily jumped ashore. Yes, the weather here is very capricious, we had to spend two more days in this place, waiting for the wind to weaken.

The next transition was more successful. Having sailed around the huge shallows, we passed Cape Chernaya Lopatka and stopped at Pakhancheskaya Bay. The place here again turned out to be terribly inconvenient, low. Now we knew for sure that it was the same here, during western storms the tundra would be flooded with sea for several kilometers. All the lakes and streams here turned out to be completely salty, and in search of fresh water we had to go quite far to find at least some fresh puddle.

In the evening of the next day we set off further; we really wanted to quickly reach Varandey, a settlement located exactly in the middle of our route. We decided to cross Pakhancheskaya Bay directly. A light breeze blew from the south, we slowly moved forward, but soon the rain caught up with us. The wind intensified, from the clear south it began to set to the southeast. Both the shores and the low night sun disappeared from view behind the rain - we immediately lost our orientation in space. In order not to accidentally jump out of the bay into the open ocean, we headed east, and a few hours later we found ourselves on the shore, twenty-five kilometers south of the Pesyakov Shar channel. Here we were again beset by problems with water, but we stayed in this place for another day, after which, again under sail, in three passages, we reached Varandey by July 25th.

The sea near Varandey greeted us with high, steep waves and a headwind from the east. We felt mortally tired and, having entered the border post in Novy Varandey, retreated ten kilometers to the west, to Pesyakov Island, where we hoped to wait for more suitable weather. Our fatigue, as it turned out, had a very specific nature: the oxygen content in the air at high latitudes is significantly lower than in the middle zone. The body's need for food and rest increases, and strength becomes much less. Everything was complicated by the fact that we were running out of food, and there was no store in Varandey. Fortunately, the local land is very rich in game, and therefore we were not threatened with hunger. We spent three more days at Pesyakov, after which we moved on.

The wind was still blowing in our faces, and we moved forward very slowly, making small transitions. So, on August 1, we reached Cape Polyarny, where the semi-abandoned Medynka base was located, guarded by two guards. Here we stayed for two days, ate our food, and then purchased a month’s supply of cereals at a nearby drilling site. Now we could safely move on and, having rounded Cape Medynsky, crossing the Perevozny Bay with a fair wind, we stood twenty kilometers north of Cape Perevozny Nos.

Next we had to cross the Khaypudyr Bay in a narrow place - the last serious obstacle on the way to Vaygach. On August 7, under sail, we reached the cape, turning near which, we moved through the sixteen-kilometer mouth of the lip to reach its eastern shore. When we left the Perevoznoy nose it was already getting dark, but there was still enough light to see the opposite high shore. The wind died down, we lowered the sails and moved forward with the oars. However, not even an hour had passed before a fresh wind blew from the west at our backs. The wind kept getting fresher, the sky was overcast with clouds, it was getting dark all around and, finally, we began to lose sight of the shore to which we were heading.

Fortunately, the dawn was still visible in the north, and we could confidently steer in the right direction. The waves gradually became steeper and angrier, soon they rolled chaotically from different directions and we finally realized that we were probably too excited, having set off through the lip not only at night, but also at low tide. It became clear that now we would end up in a real slog: at low tide, a huge mass of water rushes from the Khaypudyr Bay into the ocean and, colliding with the ocean current, forms very high chaotic waves that rage for several kilometers.

We were mortally afraid of this, but there was no way to go back due to the strong westerly wind. Resigned to the inevitable, we rushed headlong into this mountainous area, and during the rest of the journey we suffered such fear that we almost turned gray.

To understand what sea suloy is, imagine a powerful threshold ten kilometers long, in which there are no stones, but waves of at least two meters in height are constantly raging. However, after a couple of hours we still overcame the Khaypudyr Bay and in the morning landed six kilometers from Cape Sinkin Nos. The weather deteriorated hopelessly and a storm raged. Here we had to spend another four days waiting out the bad weather. We walked on foot to the uninhabited village of Sinkin, where we met a lone hunter living there, and from whom we learned many interesting local tales.

When the weather improved, we moved on, and in two trips we reached Cape Black Nose near the mouth of the Korotaikha River. Forty kilometers from the mouth is the village of Karatayka, the largest settlement in these places, but it did not interest us then, and on the next crossing we reached the Bolshaya Talata River in Belkovskaya Bay. Here we rested for the day, and on August 16 we headed north along the coast of the Yugra Peninsula.

A fresh south wind was blowing, which, as it turned out later, reached a speed of 21 m/s. In just two days we reached the Yugorsky Shar Strait, where we spent the night at the Bely Nos polar station. Now we only had to cross the strait to achieve our cherished goal. This did not cause any difficulties, and on August 19 we already landed on the white rocky shores of Vaygach Island, near Cape Kanin Nos. Here we finally got the opportunity to rinse our boots in the cold waters of the Kara Sea, the western border of which here runs exactly along the line White Nose - Cape Greben.

From here we decided to return to Karatayka, although there were only 40 kilometers left to Amderma, due to the fact that it was almost impossible to get out of Amderma “to the ground” for real money. Now we were separated from the desired finish by about 200 kilometers, but the wind was persistently blowing from the southwest and we could hardly count on quickly returning back to the mouth of Korotaikha. And so it happened: we crawled 70 kilometers to the hut on the Sedayakha River in six days. We stayed on Sedayakha for several days, waiting out another storm.

In the surrounding area, we were lucky enough to meet reindeer herders and a passing all-terrain vehicle, on which on August 30 we successfully reached Karatayka, from where, also on an all-terrain vehicle, we reached Vorkuta by September 3.

In general, on this journey, out of seventy days in total, there were no more than forty days of travel. And on average, if we divide the total mileage by the total amount of time spent on the expedition, our speed was just over ten kilometers per day. This is very little compared even to the White Sea, where our average daily mileage was almost fifteen kilometers. In addition, as we understood, it was necessary to leave not at the end, but at the beginning of June, as soon as the sea begins to become free of ice. In this case, the duration of the season will not be two months (as in our case), but almost three. After all, at the end of August it is almost impossible to go kayaking here - the wind blows much stronger, it is stormy almost every day, and frosts begin at night.

However, the Barents Sea cannot be called more severe and complex than, for example, the White Sea. Storms happen here and there, and in any sea they are dangerous. If we compare the White and Barents Seas, we can say that in the Barents Sea it is much easier to land on the shore in a kayak - there are no such huge littoral areas covered with viscous silt that prevent you from approaching land.

In the Barents Sea, the bottom is sandy or rocky - wandering along it is a pleasure. At the beginning of summer there are not many storms here and there are quite a few days when the sea is absolutely calm and the water is smooth as glass. Therefore, it cannot be said that the Barents Sea is extremely dangerous and impassable for a kayak. You just have to take into account that storms happen here more often and the strength goes away much faster.

Our difficulties arose not at sea, but on land - due to strong winds, lack of oxygen and cold weather. It took us three times more food than usual, and we ran out of energy twice as fast. For example, in thirty-five days we walked only four hundred kilometers to the Medynsky Gate, and by this time we had almost run out of food stored for two months.

However, despite all the difficulties and surprises, the trip turned out to be simply unforgettable, and we will continue it next year. I think it should be no less interesting and exciting than this.

Well, now, it’s time to move on to reading stories about the Pechora-Yugora journey.

• Forward

I am sure that many people know about the first voyage around the world under the leadership of Ferdinand Magellan. This historical event played key role in the process of discovering new lands and territories, but this expedition was carried out by the Spaniards, and I would like to talk about our compatriots who were able to accomplish a similar feat.

General travel information

The Russians decided to travel around the world much later than the Spaniards led by Ferdinand Magellan. This event dates back to 1803, and its duration was the same as that of the first expedition - 3 years. But if the Spaniards had Magellan, then who were the Russian commanders? These were two people, namely: Yuri Lisyansky and Ivan Kruzenshtern, who commanded the crews of their ships “Neva” and “Nadezhda”. Next, I would like to say about the significance of this expedition for Russia in general. It also influenced the raising of the level of the Russian fleet, and, of course, brought many benefits to the exploration of world waters. Now I want to move on, in fact, to the route along which the expedition moved.

Description of Russian travel around the world

The beginning of the journey was marked by Alexander I’s personal inspection of the ships, which became home to sailors for the next 3 years. Besides this, I can highlight:

Now, regarding the travel route. It began in Kronstadt, and the first stop was the Danish city of Copenhagen, after which the expedition headed to Britain, and then visited the Canary Islands and Spain. After a short pause, they headed to Brazil and visited Easter Island and the Hawaiian Islands. The next destination was Russian Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky and Japan, then Alaska, China and even Macau, which is located in Portugal. After visiting St. Helena, the Azores and Portsmouth in Great Britain, the travelers returned to Kronstadt.