There are special terms for each type of violation. If a pronunciation defect occurs, then we are talking about sigmatism, rhotacism, etc.; When replacing a sound, the prefix “para-” is added to the name of the defect.

1. Whistling sigmatism- pronunciation deficiencies [s-s"], [z-z"], [ts] (see Fig. 1, 2). Further explanations.

When pronouncing the sound [s], the lips are stretched into a smile, the front teeth are visible. The tip of the tongue rests on the front incisors, the front part of the back of the tongue is curved. The lateral edges of the tongue are adjacent to the molars, and a round gap is formed between the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth. A groove is formed along the midline of the tongue, through which a strong stream of exhaled air passes, creating a whistling noise. The narrower the gap, the higher the sound. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage into the nasal cavity, g
The hair folds do not produce voice.

When pronouncing [s"], the lips stretch more and tense. The anterior-middle part of the back of the tongue rises higher, moves slightly forward, and the noise becomes even higher.

When pronouncing [ts], the lips take the position of the next vowel. The sound begins with a stop element (as with [t]). The tip of the tongue is lowered, touching the lower teeth, and the front part of the back of the tongue is raised to the alveoli or upper teeth, forming a bridge with them. The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the molars. The sound ends with a fricative sound, as with [s], which sounds short. The exhaled stream is strong and cold. The articulation of the sound [ts] is shown in Fig. 2.

There are several types of whistling sigmatism.

Interdental sigmatism- the most common type of sigmatism. The tongue is stuck between the teeth, there is no characteristic whistle, instead of a round gap there is a flat gap. The same defect extends to [z] and [ts].

Labial-dental sigmatism. In addition to the tongue, the lower lip is involved in the formation of the gap; the sound becomes similar to [f].

Lateral sigmatism characterized by the fact that the lateral edges of the tongue are not adjacent to the molars and the exhaled air stream does not pass through the middle of the tongue, but along the sides. The tip of the tongue and the front part of the back form a connection with the alveoli, and a noise is heard instead of [s]. The defect extends to [z], [ts] and paired soft

Dental parasigmatism. Instead of a slit, the tongue forms a bow; a sound like [t] or [d] is heard. The sound [ts] loses one of the elements ([t] or [s]).

Hissing parasigmatism- the tongue takes the position as when pronouncing [w] or shortened [sch].

Techniques for producing whistling sounds

Corrective work is carried out depending on what type of disorder the child has.

With labiodental sigmatism, the child is shown correct articulation in front of a mirror and the lower lip is pulled away from the teeth.

With interdental sigmatism, the child is asked to pronounce the syllable “sa” with clenched teeth.

For lateral sigmatism, special preparatory work is carried out to activate the muscles of the tongue.

When making whistling sounds, articulatory gymnastics exercises such as “Smile”, “Let’s brush the bottom teeth”, “Groovet”, etc. are used. The child’s ability to strongly blow air through the mouth and control the exhalation using the palm of the hand, cotton wool or a strip of paper is practiced. The air stream should be cold and strong. You can use speech therapy probes or sticks. You need to ask the child to smile and press his tongue against his lower teeth. Place a stick along the tongue so that it presses only the front of it. Part. Close your teeth and blow forcefully. Reinforce sound pronunciation [With] You can first with a stick, and then without it.

The sound [ts] can be made by imitation, provided that [t] and [s] are pronounced well. With the tip of the tongue lowered, the child is asked to pronounce [t] with a strong exhalation. The front part of the back of the tongue is pressed against the upper incisors. Usually [ts] is placed in reverse position, and consolidation begins with reverse syllables.

When setting up voiced pairs, the voice is additionally turned on.

2
.Sigmatism of the sibilants- violation of pronunciation [w], [zh], [h], [sch]. In Fig. 3, 4 show the articulation of these sounds.

When pronouncing the sound [sh], the lips are extended forward and rounded, and there is a distance of 4-5 mm between the teeth. The tip of the tongue is raised to the alveoli, the lateral edges are pressed against the molars, the middle part of the back of the tongue bends, the velum is raised and closes the passage into the nasal cavity. The air is warm, passing through the middle of the tongue. The sound [zh] has the same articulation, but with the addition of a voice. There are several types with
igmatism hissing.

"Buccal" pronunciation[and], and [w]. Articulation occurs without the participation of the tongue, the teeth are very close together or compressed, the corners of the mouth are pressed against the teeth. A “dull” noise is produced. When pronouncing [zh], a voice is added to it. This type of disorder usually causes the cheeks to swell.

"Bottom" pronunciation[g] and [w]. hissing ones acquire a soft shade, as with [ш].

Back-lingual pronunciation[g] and [w]. In this case, the gap is formed by the convergence of the hard palate with the back of the back of the tongue. A noise occurs that resembles the noise produced by the sounds [x] or [g].

Sometimes there may be cases of replacing hissing sounds with others, for example, whistling sounds.

Sound production techniques[w] and [f]. First put [w], and then - [g].

Lip exercises are used: “Donut” - round the lips, as if pronouncing [o]. Exercises for the tongue: “Cup”, “Delicious jam”, “Focus”, etc.

The sound [w] can be placed from the sound [s]. The child is asked to pronounce the syllable “sa” several times. At this time, the speech therapist smoothly, using a probe, spatula or spoon, lifts the tip of the tongue towards the alveoli. As you rise, the noise changes and acquires a character corresponding to [w]. The speech therapist fixes the child's attention on this position. Later, the child tries to independently take the correct articulatory position.

If the child’s pronunciation of the sound [r] is not impaired, then the sound [w] can also be added from it. The child is asked to pronounce the syllable “ra”. At the moment of pronouncing it, the speech therapist touches the lower part of the tongue with a spatula and slows down its vibration. If a child speaks in a whisper, then “sha” is heard; when pronounced loudly, “zha” is heard. The sound [zh] can be made from the sound [sh] with the inclusion of voice or from [z], like [sh] from [s].

Disadvantages of pronunciation of the sound [ш].

The articulation of this sound is similar to the articulation of the sound [sh]: the lips are positioned in the same way, the tip of the tongue is raised up, but slightly lower than with [sh]. The front part of the back of the tongue bends, and its middle part rises to the hard palate. The rear is lowered and pushed forward. The velum is raised. The exhaled air passes through the middle of the tongue into the resulting gap. The air stream is long and warm.

The sound u can be derived from the preserved sound [sh] by imitation.

Another way of setting is from the sound [s"]. The child is asked to pronounce the syllable “si” or “sya” several times with a drawn-out whistling sound. Using a spatula, the tongue is moved back slightly until the desired sound is obtained.

If the sound [ch"] is pronounced correctly, then it is easy to put [sch] from it. The child pronounces the sound [ch" in an extended manner, resulting in [sch]. This sound must be immediately introduced into syllables and then into words.

Disadvantages of pronunciation of the sound [h].

Articulation of the sound [h"]: the lips are pushed forward and rounded, the teeth are close together or closed, the tip of the tongue is lowered and touches the lower teeth. The sound begins with the stop element and ends with the plosive element, which sounds briefly. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose, the sound dull and soft.

Pronunciation deficiencies are usually the same as those of other sibilants. Sometimes, instead of the sound [h"], a soft affricate [ts"], [t"] or [w"] is pronounced.

The sound [h"] is placed from [t"]. The child is asked to pronounce the syllable “at” several times, and at this time the speech therapist, using a probe or spatula, moves the tip of the tongue back slightly. The sound [ch"] is easier to place in reverse syllables.

3
. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sounds [l] and [l"] - lambdacism and paralambdacism. For the articulation of these sounds, see Fig. 5.

When articulating the sound [l], the lips are neutral and take the position of the next vowel. The tip of the tongue is raised and can come into contact with the alveoli. A gap is formed on the sides of the tongue through which air passes. The air stream is weak and warm. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The anterior-middle part of the back of the tongue is lowered, and its root part is raised and pulled back, forming a spoon-shaped depression.

When articulating the soft [l "], the lips are slightly pulled to the sides, and the anteromedial part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate and moves forward, the back of the back of the tongue is significantly moved forward and lowered.

Among the violations of the pronunciation of [l], there is a distortion of sound: a bilabial sonorant sound is pronounced, reminiscent of a short [u] or English [w].

Much more common are cases of paralambdacism, when [l] is replaced by short [s] or [l"] and [j] .

When making the sound [l], use the exercises “Chatterer” and “Cup”.

The child is asked to pronounce the combination “ыа” with a short pronunciation [ы]. As soon as the child has mastered the desired pronunciation, he is asked to pronounce these sounds again, but at the same time the tongue must be clamped between the teeth. Then the combination “la” is clearly heard.

It happens that, having already been able to pronounce a sound correctly, a child continues to hear his previous sound. Therefore, it is necessary to attract his auditory attention to the sound that is produced during production.

4
. Disadvantages of pronunciation r and [r"] - rhotacism and pararotacism. Articulation is shown in Fig. 6.

When pronouncing [r], the lips are open and take the position of the next vowel, the distance between the teeth is 4-5 mm. The tip of the tongue is raised and vibrates at the alveoli with a hard [r] or at the upper incisors with a soft [r"]. The root part of the tongue is lowered, the lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars, the air stream is strong and passes through the middle.

There are several types of rotacism:

♦ [r] is not pronounced at all;

♦ velar [p] - vibration occurs not at the tip of the tongue, but at the velum palatine, to which the root of the tongue is close;

♦ uvular [p] - vibration of a small tongue occurs;

♦ lateral rhotacism - one of the lateral edges of the tongue vibrates, as a result of which a combination of “rl” sounds is heard;

♦ coachman [p] - closed lips vibrate, and it turns out “prr”;

♦ single-impact [r] - instead of vibration, a single blow of the tip of the tongue occurs on the alveoli, and an apparent sound [r] is formed, similar to the sound [d];

♦ buccal [p] - one or both cheeks vibrate due to the fact that a gap for the exhaled stream is formed between the lateral edge of the tongue and the upper molars.

There are several types of pararotacism:

♦ [p] is replaced by the sound [v], pronounced without vibration, with the lips;

♦ [p] is replaced by the sound [d];

♦ [p] is replaced by the sound [s];

♦ [p] is replaced by the sounds [l], [g] or [th].

When setting the sound [p], the exercises “Mushroom”, “Horses”, “Coachman”, etc. are used.

Usually the sound [r] is placed mechanically using a speech therapy probe. The child is asked to raise the tongue to the alveoli, the lateral edges should be pressed against the molars. Repeatedly say “tdd”, “ddd” at a fast pace.

When the child has mastered the pronunciation of these combinations well, he is asked to blow strongly on his tongue, and at this moment a vibration should occur.

Another way to make this sound is to pronounce “tzh” with an extended second element. When the child pronounces these sounds, the speech therapist inserts a probe with a ball at the end under the tongue, touching the lower surface, and quickly moves the probe left and right.

The technique of setting the sound [p] from the combination “zzz-a” turns out to be effective. The child moves his tongue upward, continuing to pronounce this combination of sounds. At this moment, the speech therapist, using a probe, vibrates the tongue from right to left, achieving vibration of the tongue. The sound [r"] is placed similarly to the syllable "zi".

5. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sounds k, g, x, [k"], [g"], [x"] - kappacism, gammacism, chitism. The articulation of these sounds is shown in Fig. 7, 8.

When pronouncing the sound [k], the lips take the position of the next vowel, the distance between the teeth is about 5 mm. The tip of the tongue is lowered and distant from the lower teeth, the back of the back of the tongue closes with the palate. At the moment the sound is pronounced, the bow between the palate and the tongue explodes, and air flows through the resulting passage, forming a characteristic noise.

When articulating the sound [x], the back of the tongue does not completely close with the palate: a gap is formed in its middle part through which air escapes, producing noise.

When pronouncing soft pairs of these sounds, the tongue moves slightly forward, towards the middle part of the hard palate.

With kappacism, instead of the sound [k], a guttural click is heard; with gammacism, a voice is added to it. With chitism, a weak guttural noise is heard.

Paracappacism includes substitutions such as replacing [k] with [t] or with [x].

The sound [k] can be produced by imitation or mechanically. With mechanical stimulation, the child is asked to pronounce the syllable “ta” repeatedly. At this time, the speech therapist uses a spatula to push the child's tongue back, pressing on the front of the tongue. First, the syllable “ta” is transformed into the syllable “cha”, then into the syllable “kya”, and then the syllable “ka” is heard.

When correcting paracapacism, you need to draw the child’s attention to the difference in sounds, i.e. on their differentiation, along with the production of the sound [k].

The disadvantages of pronunciation of the sounds [g] and [x] are generally similar to the described varieties of cappacism and paracappacism.

The techniques for correcting and setting these sounds are the same as when setting the sound [k]. The sound [g] is placed from the syllables “da - dya - gya - gah”; the sound [x] from the syllables “sa - sya - hya - ha”.

This is followed by exercises for consolidation, automation and differentiation of sounds if sound substitutions were observed.

6. Disadvantages of pronunciation of the sound ([th]) Usually the child replaces this sound with a soft [l"].

When pronouncing the sound [th "], the lips are stretched, but less than with [i]. The tip of the tongue lies at the lower teeth, the middle part of the back of the tongue is strongly raised towards the hard palate, and the back part is moved forward. The edges of the tongue rest against the upper lateral teeth. The vocal folds vibrate and create a voice; the exhaled stream of air is weak.

There are two ways to fix the sound. With the first method, the sound can be placed from the vowel [i]. The child is asked to pronounce combinations of vowels “ai”, “aia”, “oi”, “io”, intensifying the exhalation at the moment of pronouncing [i]. Gradually, the child is asked to pronounce [i] more briefly, achieving the desired sound [th].

Another way to set the sound [i] is to set it from soft [z"] with mechanical assistance. The child pronounces the syllable “zya” several times, and at this time the speech therapist uses a spatula or probe to move the tongue back until the desired sound is obtained.

Dysgraphia- a specific disorder of writing processes. Children with dysgraphia are characterized by disturbances in visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, dividing sentences into words, disorders of mental processes, and the emotional-volitional sphere.

It is customary to distinguish several types of dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia. With it, the child both pronounces words and writes them. It manifests itself in substitutions and omissions of letters, similar to omissions of sounds in oral speech. Occurs with dysarthria, rhinolalia.

2. Acoustic dysgraphia - dysgraphia that occurs as a result of disturbances in the differentiation of phonemes. The child replaces letters that sound similar. Most often, whistling - hissing, voiced - voiceless, affricates and their components are replaced. Sometimes children incorrectly indicate softness in writing as a result of a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants.

This type of dysgraphia is most clearly manifested in sensory alalia, when letters that are distant in articulation and acoustics can be mixed.

3. Dysgraphia as a result of a violation of language analysis and synthesis. Manifests itself in distortions in the structure of words and sentences. Due to violations of phonemic analysis, the sound-letter structure of words especially suffers. The following errors may be observed: omissions of consonants when they are combined; vowel omissions; rearranging or adding letters; omissions, rearrangements and additions of syllables. Violations at the sentence level are manifested in the continuous spelling of words, especially words with prepositions, and the separate spelling of words, for example, separating a root from a prefix.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech. Manifests itself at the level of words, phrases, sentences and text. The child breaks the sequence of sentences that do not correspond to the sequence of events. In sentences, the morphological structure of the word is violated, prefixes, suffixes, case endings, prepositions and the number of nouns are replaced. In addition, the child has difficulty constructing complex sentences.

5. Optical dysgraphia. It manifests itself as a result of underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis, synthesis and spatial representations. When writing, letters are distorted and replaced. Most often, letters that are similar in spelling are interchanged; they consist of the same elements, but are positioned differently when written (“v” and “y”); letters that have the same elements, but differ in some additional elements (“l” and “m”). Mirror writing of letters is observed; omissions of elements, especially when connecting letters that may contain identical, redundant or incorrectly located elements.

Dysgraphia may also be accompanied by non-speech symptoms.

7. Dyslexia is a partial specific disorder of the reading process. Dyslexia occurs as a result of immaturity of higher mental functions and manifests itself in persistent errors. The causes of dyslexia can be organic or functional. Most often, dyslexia manifests itself in speech and neuropsychiatric disorders. Children with dyslexia have difficulties in spatial orientation, in determining the right and left side, up and down. In the psychological aspect of the study of dyslexia, it is considered as a violation of the operations of the reading process, namely, visual perception and distinguishing letters, choosing a phoneme, merging sounds into syllables, synthesizing syllables into words, and words into sentences.

There are several types of dyslexia.

Phonemic dyslexia associated with underdevelopment of the phonemic system of the language. The following functions of the phonemic system are distinguished: meaning-distinguishing function, when a change in one phoneme or one feature can lead to a change in meaning; auditory-pronunciation differentiation of phonemes - one phoneme differs from another articulatory and acoustically; phonemic analysis or decomposition of a word into phonemes. Phonemic dyslexia is divided into two forms. The first is associated with underdevelopment of phonemic perception, manifested in difficulties in learning letters and replacing letters that are similar in articulation and acoustics (“k-g”, “sh-s”, etc.). The second form of reading impairment is associated with a violation of phonemic analysis. In this case, disturbances in the sound-syllable structure and letter-by-letter reading are observed. A child may skip letters when consonants are combined, insert extra vowels between consonants, and rearrange letters and syllables in words.

Semantic dyslexia manifests itself in the fact that the child does not understand the meaning of what he read when reading the text intact. These difficulties arise in the child as a result of a violation of sound-syllable synthesis and unclear ideas about syntactic connections in a sentence. During the reading process, the child divides words into syllables and, as a result, does not understand the meaning of what he read. Children are not able to combine sequentially pronounced syllables into a single whole. They read mechanically, without understanding the meaning. Children with this disorder cannot consistently pronounce a word that is pronounced separately by sounds with short pauses between them (v, o, d, a); reproduce the word divided by voice into syllables (ma-shi-na po-e-ha-la). During the reading process, words are perceived without connection with the rest of the sentence.

Agrammatic dyslexia arises as a result of underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech, syntactic, morphological generalizations. With this type of dyslexia, changes in case endings and number of nouns are observed, nouns incorrectly agree in gender, number and case with adjectives; gender endings of pronouns are used incorrectly; verb forms change.

Mnestic dyslexia manifests itself in the fact that it is difficult for the child to learn letters and difficult to differentiate them. It is caused by a disrupted process of establishing a connection between a sound and a letter and a violation of speech memory. It is difficult for children to reproduce a chain of 4-5 sounds or words. Even if they reproduce them, there are omissions of sounds, their replacements, and a violation of the sequence of sounds.

Optical dyslexia manifests itself in difficulties in assimilating and mixing letters that are graphically similar. This type of dyslexia is similar to optical dysgraphia in its manifestations, but here the letters are not capitalized, but printed. Children mix [l] and [d], which differ from each other in additional elements; They mix [n] and [n], which differ from each other in that the same elements of these letters are located differently in space. This happens because the child has underdeveloped optical-spatial perception, visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis are impaired, and there is no differentiation of ideas about similar forms.

Non-verbal manifestations may also be observed: when drawing complex objects, the child misses and distorts some details of the drawing. It is difficult for children to construct a letter from its elements, complete one or more elements and make another letter, because all these operations require some analysis and synthesis. In literal optical dyslexia, impairments occur in isolated letter recognition, while in verbal optical dyslexia, impairments occur in reading.

Tactile dyslexia observed in blind children. It is based on difficulties in tactile differentiation of Braille letters. When reading, there is a mixture of letters that have the same number of dots or dots that are mirrored; points located below or above, or those that differ by one point.

When examining children, the state of vision, hearing, nervous system, and cognitive activity is taken into account. The examination is carried out comprehensively, with the involvement of various specialists.

The types of disorders associated with dysgraphia and dyslexia are largely similar, so the methods of correctional work have much in common and are considered together.

Firstly, work is being done on the development of phonemic awareness, which is especially impaired in phonemic dyslexia, articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia and dysgraphia based on impaired phoneme recognition. The work is carried out in two stages. At the first stage, the pronunciation and auditory image of sounds that are mixed is clarified. The work is carried out based on visual, auditory, tactile analyzers: the sound is highlighted in syllables, its place in the word is determined, its place in relation to other sounds is isolated from the text and sentence. At the second stage, a comparison is made of sounds that were mixed by ear and pronunciation. Differentiation occurs in the same way as at the first stage, but the speech material should not contain an isolated sound, but mixed sounds. During the work, each sound being practiced is correlated with a specific letter, and written exercises are carried out that help differentiate sounds. Before starting work to eliminate articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia, sound pronunciation is corrected.

When correcting phonemic dyslexia and dysgraphia due to a violation of language analysis, the development of language analysis and synthesis is carried out. To do this, the following types of exercises are offered: come up with a sentence based on a plot picture and count how many words there are in it. A number is called and the child must make a sentence with that number of words. Then it is proposed to increase or decrease the number of words in the sentence. Draw up a sentence diagram, indicate the place in the sentence of the named word, etc.

Work on developing analysis and synthesis in syllables should begin with non-speech techniques: ask the child to tap or clap the number of syllables in a word. Gradually, the child is taught to identify vowels in words and they explain to him that there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. First, the child must be able to distinguish vowels from consonants. For this, various techniques and methods are used. Work begins with monosyllabic words, gradually becoming more complex.

Various exercises are performed to strengthen it. For example:

♦ the speech therapist names the word, the child must raise a number corresponding to the number of syllables in the word;

♦ name the first syllables in the names of the objects depicted in the proposed pictures, write them down. Read the word or sentence that came out;

♦ find out the missing syllable using a picture;

♦ select words with a certain number of syllables from the text.

When forming phonemic analysis and synthesis, it is necessary to first use only vowel sounds, and then gradually introduce consonants to them. Initially, this work is carried out with the help of auxiliary tools - chips and graphic diagrams. The child learns to identify sounds and fill in graphic diagrams using chips.

At the next stage, phonemic analysis is carried out on speech material, the child determines the number of sounds in words, names the first and subsequent sounds in words.

At the third stage, the child no longer pronounces syllables, but performs all actions mentally, i.e. the work takes place at the level of representations.

The principle of complexity applies here: from easy to complex. Written works are widely used: insert a letter into a word; write down words with a certain number of syllables; transform words by adding sound, rearranging sound, changing sound; make graphical diagrams of sentences.

At the initial stages of work, pronunciation occurs, which is gradually reduced. All subsequent work occurs on the mental plane, according to the idea.

When eliminating agrammatic dysgraphia and dyslexia, the task is to form in the child morphological and syntactic generalizations and ideas about the structure of sentences.

Work begins to clarify the structure of sentences. First, simple two-part sentences are taken, consisting of a noun and a third-person verb of the present tense (The boy is walking). Then the sentences are supplemented with a direct object (Mom washes the frame. Daughter writes a letter to dad). It is useful to add words to sentences that denote the attribute of an object.

When constructing a proposal, you must rely on graphic diagrams. First, instead of a sentence, the child makes a graphic diagram, and then writes it under the sentence.

Additionally, such types of tasks as answering questions, making proposals orally and in writing are used.

The inflection function is formed, i.e. the child is explained the change of nouns by cases, numbers, genders; agreement of nouns with adjectives and verbs, etc. This involves written and oral work.

The same work is carried out to eliminate semantic dyslexia, which is caused by underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech. Semantic dyslexia manifests itself in inaccurate comprehension of sentences read. If semantic dyslexia manifests itself at the word level during syllabic reading, then it is necessary to develop sound-syllable synthesis. You can use the following exercises:

♦ name a word pronounced separately by sounds;

♦ name a word pronounced syllable by syllable;

♦ make a word from syllables given in disorder.

At the same time, you need to carry out reading comprehension exercises: read a word and find a picture for it; choose a sentence from the text that matches the picture; read the sentences and be able to answer questions based on them.

When eliminating optical dysgraphia and dyslexia, work takes place in several directions. Firstly, it is necessary to develop visual perception, recognition of shape, size, color. First, the work is based on various images of the outline of an object, and then the transition is gradually made to recognizing letters (for example, finding a letter among others, correlating a printed and a written letter, adding or removing elements of letters, etc.).

Children's ideas about size, shape and color are clarified and developed. To complete these tasks you need to have geometric shapes of different colors and shapes. Tasks are selected to clarify any of the characteristics.

With this form of dyslexia and dysgraphia, it is necessary to develop visual memory. To do this, use the games “What has changed?”, “What has disappeared?” and others that require memory development.

Work on the formation of spatial representations and designation of these relations in speech is also considered necessary. First, the child is taught to navigate in his own body, and then in the surrounding space.

To develop orientation in the surrounding space, the child first determines the location of objects relative to himself, then relative to objects located on the side, then the spatial relationships between 2-3 objects or their images are determined. Then the speech therapist offers the child instructions on how to place the object in space. The child must follow these instructions and then say how the objects are located relative to each other and relative to him.

Gradually, a transition is made to the spatial arrangement of letters and numbers. Sample tasks:

♦ draw a circle, below - a dot, and on the left - a square;

♦ write letters to the right or left of the line, etc.

At the same time, work is being carried out to develop visual analysis of letters and images, decompose letters into individual elements, and determine similarities and differences between letters and their elements.

When eliminating optical dyslexia and dysgraphia, a large place is occupied by work on differentiating the optical images of letters that are mixed. For better memorization of images, these letters are correlated with the image of some objects or animals (for example: O - donut, Zh - beetle, F - eagle owl). Techniques for constructing letters from their elements and various riddles about letters are used.

First, children learn to distinguish letters in isolation, then - in syllables, words, sentences and texts.

These types of work involve as many different analyzers as possible.

8. Stuttering is a violation of the tempo-rhythmic organization of speech, which is caused by the convulsive state of the muscles of the speech apparatus. There are predisposing and producing causes leading to stuttering. Predisposing reasons may be:

♦ neuropathic burden of parents;

♦ neuropathic characteristics of a child who stutters;

♦ constitutional predisposition of the child;

♦ hereditary burden plus adverse effects environment, which include physical weakness of children, accelerated development of speech, lack of positive emotions and development of motor skills, sense of rhythm;

♦ brain damage in fetal development or in the postnatal period of development due to infectious diseases.

The group of producing causes consists of numerous anatomical and physiological causes: injuries, concussions, organic brain disorders, consequences of childhood diseases, diseases of the nose, pharynx and larynx, etc.; mental and social causes: immediate or short-term trauma, most often fright or fear, improper upbringing in the family as long-term mental trauma, acute mental trauma, improper speech formation in childhood, excessive speech overload, age inconsistency with the requirements, polyglossia (simultaneous acquisition of several languages ), imitation of people who stutter, retraining left-handedness.

There are two groups of symptoms for stuttering. Physiological symptoms include speech cramps, disorders of the nervous system, speech and gross motor skills. Psychological symptoms include speech hesitations and various expressive language disorders; the child fixates attention on his defect, logophobia and various speech tricks may develop.

The main symptom of stuttering is speech spasms. They are tonic - short jerky or prolonged muscle contraction - tone (p-finger); clonic - rhythmic repetition of the same convulsive muscle movements - clonus (pa-pa-finger). Depending on where the spasms predominate, they can be respiratory, vocal or articulatory.

When stuttering, three forms of breathing disturbance are observed: convulsive exhalation, convulsive inhalation, convulsive inhalation and exhalation, sometimes with a break in the word.

Convulsions in the speech apparatus are also different; they can be closing, opening, vocal. In the articulatory apparatus, convulsions can be labial, lingual, or convulsions of the soft palate.

Stuttering is characterized by violations of general and speech motor skills, manifested in a variety of tics, violent movements and speech tricks.

When stuttering, children can be divided into 3 groups based on the degree of fixation on their defect.

1. Zero degree of painful fixation: children do not experience discomfort from the awareness of their defect or do not notice it at all. They are not shy, not touchy, and do not try to correct their speech.

2. Moderate degree of painful fixation. Older children are aware of their defect, are embarrassed, hide it, and avoid communication.

3. Severe degree of painful fixation. Children, most often teenagers, have constant worries about the defect and a feeling of inferiority. They have a fear of communication and retreat into a painful state.

There are three degrees of stuttering: mild, when stuttering occurs only in an excited state or when trying to quickly speak, and is overcome quickly; average, in which in a calm and familiar environment they stutter little and speak easily, but in emotional situations severe stuttering appears; severe degree, when they stutter constantly throughout the entire speech.

Stuttering can be permanent; wavy, i.e. sometimes intensify, sometimes weaken, but do not disappear completely, and recurrent - it can disappear and then appear again.

The examination of children is carried out comprehensively, together with a psychologist, neurologist, and, if necessary, specialists from various medical fields are involved.

Treatment is also comprehensive and includes medication, physiotherapy and psychotherapeutic influence.

Drug treatment aims to normalize the activity of the nervous system, eliminate seizures and improve the health of the body as a whole.

Psychotherapeutic influence is carried out directly and indirectly. Direct influence involves verbal influence in the form of clarification, persuasion and training. Indirect influence is influence through the team, the surrounding world, nature, regime, etc. All types of psychotherapy are aimed at eradicating fear of speech and situations, feelings of inferiority and fixation on their defect in people who stutter.

Speech therapy work is the pedagogical part of an integrated approach and includes a system of various speech therapy classes, work with teachers and parents. This work can also involve direct and indirect impacts. Direct influence is carried out during speech therapy sessions, individual or group. Indirect influence involves a system of speech therapy for all routine moments in the child’s life and the attitude of his environment towards him. Particular importance is attached in this work to the child’s speech regime.

Speech therapy classes are carried out sequentially, step by step, taking into account the degree and type of stuttering, the personal and psychological characteristics of the child, and are based on the activity and consciousness of the child. Various teaching methods are used, including visual and technical means.

An important section of this work is the use of speech therapy rhythms, which is a set of musical and motor exercises for speech therapy correction.

When organizing all types of work, it is important to take into account the age of the child and know that for preschoolers the main place is occupied by play and educational activities, and to a lesser extent - drug treatment; in adolescents and adults, on the contrary, greater importance is attached to medical influence and psychotherapy, and less importance to pedagogical techniques.

Speech therapy classes use technical and visual teaching aids. Visual materials include textbooks, board games, filmstrips, records, etc. Special technical means include devices that help in working with children who stutter: for example, the Derazhne corrective recorder, the Echo apparatus, and tape recorders.

Derazhne's device operates on a dampening effect. Noises of varying intensity are fed through special tubes ending in olives directly into the ear canal, and drown out one’s own speech. This makes it easier to carry out various auditory exercises, because... auditory control is turned off. Gradually, the jamming force decreases, and children learn to speak without the device.

This type of correction is not suitable for everyone, because... some react painfully to extraneous noise.

Tape recordings are widely used in speech therapy work. First, the stutterer listens to samples of correct speech on a tape recorder, then his own speech is recorded. After this, the child, together with a speech therapist, listens to the recording and analyzes it. Sometimes the performances of artists are auditioned, and the child imitates them in his performance. Lessons with a tape recorder are usually carried out in cases where the child has a fixation on his defect and awareness of his incorrect speech.

All methods of speech therapy work with people who stutter are divided depending on age: work with preschoolers, work with schoolchildren, teenagers and adults.

1. Disadvantages of pronunciation of soundsR And R (distortion - rotacism, replacements - pararotacism).

The structure of the organs of articulation. The lips are open and take the position of the next vowel sound, the distance between the teeth is 4-5 mm. The tip of the tongue rises to the base of the upper teeth. It is tense and vibrates in the passing air stream. The anterior-middle part of the back of the tongue bends. The back of the tongue is pushed back and rises slightly towards the soft palate. The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars, the vocal-exhalatory stream passes through the middle. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose,

Rice.1. Articulation of sounds r, r. _______ R; _ . _ . _ R

Soft sound R differs from the hard palate in that when it is articulated, the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate (approximately as with the vowel And), the tip of the tongue is slightly lower than when R, the back of the back of the tongue, together with the root, is moved forward (Fig. 1).

Violation of the solid R It happens velar or uvular. With velar articulation, a gap is formed at the point where the root of the tongue approaches the soft palate; exhaled air, passing through this gap, causes random multi-impact vibration of the soft palate. As a result, noise arises that mixes with the tone of the voice. With uvular R only the small tongue vibrates; the vibration is harmonic in nature and is not accompanied by noise.

Lateral articulation is complex and difficult to correct. R(lateral rotacism). One of the lateral edges of the tongue vibrates, the closure between the tongue and the molars breaks, and a voice-exhalatory stream emerges through it, as with a sound l, as a result, a sound is pronounced in which the R and l.

With buccal pronunciation R a gap for an exhaled stream of air is formed between the lateral edge of the tongue and the upper molars, as a result of which the cheek vibrates (vibrates). At the same time, noise is superimposed on the tone of voice. Rarely, the disorder is bilateral.

Single-impact is somewhat less common R, in which there is no vibration, but the place of articulation is the same as with a normally pronounced sound; it is sometimes called spacious.

Even less common coachman's r, when lips close together vibrate.

Among pararotacisms there are sound substitutions R steamy soft R, as well as l, / (iot), g, d and etc.

Soft R can be violated in the same way as the hard one, but at the same time there are often cases when only the hard sound is violated, and the soft one turns out to be undisturbed.

Sound production techniques.

By imitation. This technique only occasionally leads to positive results, so others have to be used more often.

The most common technique is sound productionR from d, repeating on one exhalation: ddd, ddd, s followed by a more forced pronunciation of the latter. Alternating pronunciation of soundsT And d in combination etc, etc or tdd, tdd at a fast pace, rhythmically. They are articulated when the mouth is slightly open and when the tongue is closed not with the incisors, but with the gums of the upper incisors or alveoli. Repeatedly pronouncing a series of sounds d k t the child is asked to blow strongly on the tip of the tongue, and at this moment a vibration occurs.

However, this technique does not always lead to success. With posterior lingual articulation R or its velar (uvelar) articulation, a bifocal vibration may appear: posterior and new, anterior. The simultaneous combination of two types of vibration creates a rough noise, and the child refuses to accept such a sound. In addition, when front vibration is achieved, the sound often turns out to be excessively long (rolling) and noisy.

StagingR in two stages. At the first stage, a fricative is placed R no vibration from sound and when pronounced in a drawn-out manner without rounding the lips and moving the front edge of the tongue slightly forward, towards the gums of the upper teeth or alveoli. In this case, the sound is pronounced with a significant air pressure (as when pronouncing a dull sound) and a minimal gap between the front edge of the tongue and the gums.

The resulting fricative sound is fixed in syllables. You can, without fixing the sound in the syllables, proceed to the second stage of production: with mechanical assistance, using a ball probe. It is inserted under the tongue and, touching the lower surface of the front part of the tongue, rapid movements of the probe to the right and left cause vibrations of the tongue, its front edges alternately close and open with the alveoli. These movements can be carried out with a regular flat spatula (wooden or plastic) or probe No. 1 (Fig. 8). A child can do home workouts using the handle of a teaspoon or a clean index finger. During training, the exhaled stream should be strong.

The described technique is used in cases where the child’s hissing sounds are not impaired.

This technique leads to positive results. However, its disadvantages are that the sound turns out to be booming, is pronounced in isolation, and the child has difficulty mastering the transition from it to combinations of sound with vowels.

The most effective technique is staging R from syllabic combination behind with a slightly lengthened pronunciation of the first sound of a syllable: zzza. During repeated repetition of syllables, the child, following the instructions of the speech therapist, moves the front part of the tongue up and forward to the alveoli until the acoustic effect of a fricative is obtained R in combination with the vowel a. After this, a probe is inserted, and it is used to make quick movements from left to right and right to left. At the moment of vibration, a fairly clear sound is heard R, of normal length, without excessive rollout. With this method of sound production, no special introduction of the sound in combination with a vowel is required, since a syllable is immediately formed. In subsequent work, it is important to conduct training in evoking syllables ra, ru, ry.

When setting soft R the same technique is used, but using the syllable zi, and in the future ze, ze, ze, ze.

Usually for hard and soft sound disorders R first the hard sound is placed, and then the soft sound, but this order is not rigid, it can be changed arbitrarily; It is only not recommended to place them simultaneously to avoid displacement.

2. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sounds l and l(distortions- lambdacism, replacements- paralambdacism).

The structure of the organs of articulation. At l the lips are neutral and take the position of the next vowel. The distance between the upper and lower incisors is 2-4 mm. The tip of the tongue is raised and pressed against the base of the upper incisors (but can also occupy a lower position). The anterior-middle part of the back of the tongue is lowered, the root part is raised towards the soft palate and is pulled back, a spoon-shaped depression is formed in the middle. The lateral edges of the tongue are lowered, an exhaled stream of air passes through them, weak, as when pronouncing all voiced consonants. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds vibrate to produce voice.

Articulation of the soft l differs from the hard one in that the lips move slightly to the side when pronouncing it.

Rice. 2. Articulation of sounds l, l.

us (which is typical for soft consonants). The anterior-middle part of the back of the tongue rises towards the hard palate and moves forward slightly, the back part of the back of the tongue, together with the root, is significantly moved forward and lowered (Fig. 2).

Among the violations l a widespread distortion of sound in which a two-lipped sonorant sound is pronounced, like a short y, found in some dialects, or sound w, characteristic of the phonetic system in English. More numerous are cases of paralambdacism in the form of replacements with the short vowel ы, fricative G(as in southern Russian dialects), soft and semi-soft l, j(yot), sometimes there is a replacement with sound R and some others.

Soft l it is violated very rarely: a semi-soft pronunciation or replacement with the sound / (iot) is observed.

Sound production techniques. The child is asked to open his mouth slightly and say the combination ya. In this case, y is pronounced briefly, with tension in the organs of articulation (as if on a firm attack of the voice). The speech therapist shows a sample pronunciation. As soon as the child has mastered the desired pronunciation, the speech therapist asks him to pronounce this combination again, but with his tongue clamped between his teeth. At this moment the combination is clearly heard la. When performing the task, the speech therapist ensures that the tip of the child’s tongue remains between the teeth.

You can use another technique. Using soft as a base sound l, ask your child to repeat the syllable several times la, then insert probe No. 4 (Fig. 8) so that it is between the hard palate and the middle part of the back of the tongue; press the probe down on the tongue - to the right or left, and ask the child to say the combination several times la. At the moment of pronunciation, adjust the movement of the probe until the acoustic effect of a solid sound is obtained. l. The main difficulty in producing sound l lies in the fact that, pronouncing a sound correctly, the child continues to hear his previous sound. Therefore, it is necessary to attract the child’s auditory attention to the sound that is produced at the moment of its production. The sound l can be obtained by auditory imitation if, at the preparatory stage, the child has learned to recognize it and distinguish the correct sound from the incorrect one.

3. Disadvantages of pronunciation of soundsWith - s, s - z, c (distortions- sigmatism, replacements- parasigmatism).

The structure of the organs of articulation when pronouncing sounds s, s, s, s. When pronouncing a sound With the lips are slightly stretched into a smile, the front teeth are visible. Before labialized vowels, the lips are rounded, the teeth are brought together to a distance of 1-2 mm. The tip of the tongue rests on the lower incisors, the front part of the back of the tongue is curved. Its lateral edges are pressed against the molars. With this arrangement, a narrow passage (round gap) is formed between the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth. A groove is formed along the tongue along its midline. A strong stream of exhaled air passing through this gap causes a whistling noise. The narrower the gap, the higher the noise; the wider the gap, the lower the noise, turning into a “lisp” (the sound is pronounced with a “lisp”). The soft palate is raised and closes the passage into the nasal cavity; The vocal folds are open and do not produce voice.

When pronouncing soft With the lips stretch more than with s and become tense. The anteromedial part of the back rises higher to the hard palate and moves slightly forward in the direction of the alveoli, as a result of which it narrows even more, and the noise becomes higher (Fig. 3).

When articulating z and z, in addition to the paired deaf ones, a voice is added and the pressure of the air stream weakens.

The structure of the organs of articulation and when pronouncing a sound ts. The lips are neutral and take the position of the next vowel. The distance between the teeth is 1-2 mm. The sound is characterized by complex lingual articulation: it begins with a stop element (as with t), while the tip of the tongue is lowered and touches

Rice. 3. Articulation of sounds

s, s; z, z.

Rice. 4. Articulation of the sound ts ___bow moment; __.__. -slot

lower teeth. The front part of the back of the tongue rises to the upper teeth or alveoli, with which it makes a bow. Its lateral edges are pressed against the molars; the sound ends with a slotted element (as with c), which sounds very short. The boundary between the plosive and fricative elements is not detected either audibly or articulatory, since they are fused together. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose,

Main types of sigmatism. Interdental sigmatism is the most common in this group of disorders. Characteristic of sound With there is no whistle. Instead, a lower and weaker noise is heard, caused by the position of the tongue inserted between the teeth: the round gap is replaced by a flat one. The same disadvantage applies to paired voiced h and affricate c.

Labial-dental sigmatism. With it, in addition to the tongue, the lower lip, which moves closer to the upper incisors, participates in the formation of the gap (as in the formation of sound f), therefore the acoustic effect when distorted With close to sound f. A similar defect is observed when pronouncing other sibilants.

Lateral sigmatism. The exhaled stream of air does not pass along the midline of the tongue, but through the lateral gap, one-sided or two-sided, so the lateral edges of the tongue do not adhere to the molars. The tip of the tongue and the front part of the back form a bridge with the incisors and alveoli. With such articulation, instead of With noise is heard. The same noise, only voiced, is heard when pronouncing h. With lateral articulation it can also be pronounced c. The defect also extends to the corresponding paired soft whistling sounds. Dental parasigmatism. The tongue acquires anterior occlusive articulation instead of fricative, a plosive-type sound is heard That or, when calling, - d. At the sound ts its articulation is simplified, and it becomes single-element, pronounced as With or something like that.

Hissing parasigmatism. The tongue takes on the articulation characteristic of w, or articulation of a softened hissing sound, reminiscent of a shortened sch.

Techniques for producing whistling sounds.

The production usually starts with a dull hard With.

In case of labiodental sigmatism, the labial articulation must be removed. This is achieved by demonstrating the correct position of the lips when articulating this sound, or with mechanical assistance (with a spatula or finger, the lower lip is pulled away from the teeth). In other cases, the child is asked to smile, pull back the corners of the mouth slightly so that the teeth are visible, and blow on the tip of the tongue to produce a whistling noise typical of s. Mechanical assistance can be used. The child pronounces a syllable repeatedly ta, The speech therapist inserts probe No. 2 (Fig. 8) between the alveoli and the tip (as well as the front part of the back of the tongue) and gently presses it down. A round gap is formed, passing through which the exhaled stream of air produces a whistling noise. By controlling the probe, the speech therapist can change the size of the gap until the desired acoustic effect is obtained

For interdental sigmatism, you can use the technique described above. To avoid associations with a broken whistling sound, you need to pronounce the syllable sa with clenched teeth at the beginning of its pronunciation or slightly lengthen the pronunciation of the consonant, and lower the jaw on the vowel a. Particular attention is paid to visual and auditory control.

With lateral sigmatism, special preparatory work is necessary to activate the muscles of the lateral edges of the tongue, which, as a result of the exercises performed, can rise to close contact with the lateral teeth.

To obtain a clear pronunciation, a two-stage method of producing this sound is used: they cause interdental pronunciation to get rid of the squelching noise, and then move the tongue to the interdental position.

Sound ts placed from the sound of the lowered tip of the tongue to the lower incisors and the front part of the back of the tongue pressed against the upper incisors. The child is asked to pronounce the sound then with a strong exhalation. At the same time, they seem to pronounce this and that sequentially. The element of the whistling sound turns out to be extended. To obtain a continuous sound with a shortened whistling element, the child is asked to pronounce the reverse syllable with the vowel a. When pronounced it sounds like a combination ats. Then you need to bring the front part of the back of the tongue closer to the teeth (until they touch both the upper and lower incisors) and pronounce the combination again automatic telephone exchange with with a strong exhalation at the moment of transition from a to ts. In cases where it is difficult for a child to hold the tip of the tongue against the lower incisors, mechanical assistance is used. Using a spatula or probe No. 2 (Fig. 8), the speech therapist holds the tip of the tongue at the lower incisors or places the probe between the front part of the back of the tongue and the teeth and asks the child to pronounce a syllable with a strong exhalation ta. At the moment the child pronounces the explosive element of the syllable, the speech therapist lightly presses the tongue. A fricative noise is heard, joining the plosive noise without an interval, resulting in a continuous sound. c.

In cases where all whistling sounds are defective, production usually begins with a dull, hard sound. With. In the future, it becomes the basis for the production of other whistling, as well as hissing ones. In some cases, with impaired fricative sibilants, the sound ts Children pronounce it without distortion. In such situations, you can call the sound from the sound c. The speech therapist asks the child to say at length ts, an extended sound is heard s: shhh. Then the speech therapist asks to pronounce this element without closing the tongue with the teeth. A condition that facilitates articulation is the position ts at the beginning of an open syllable, for example tsa.

4. Disadvantages of pronunciation of hissing soundsw, w , sch, h in some cases similar to the disadvantages of whistling: interdental, buccal, lateral pronunciation. In addition, there are defects inherent in the pronunciation of only hissing sounds.

The structure of the organs of articulation. When pronouncing a sound w lips are extended forward and rounded (in front of a - rounding is minimal, in front s(s) there may not be any rounding). The distance between the teeth is greater than with whistling teeth - 4-5 mm. The tip of the tongue is raised towards the beginning of the hard palate or alveoli, the middle part of the back of the tongue bends, and the back rises towards the soft palate and is pulled towards the wall of the pharynx. The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars; The velum palatine is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds are open; a strong exhalation stream of air passes through two slits: between the back of the tongue and the soft palate, and between the tip of the tongue and the hard palate. This produces a complex noise, lower than when pronouncing whistling sounds, reminiscent of hissing.

When forming a voiced and the same articulation as when producing sound w; it is complemented by the work of closed and oscillating vocal folds that produce voice. The exhaled stream of air is somewhat weaker and the gap between the tip of the tongue and the hard palate is smaller than during the formation w(Fig. 5).

Main types of sound disordersw and f. Among the violations of these sounds, several types of distorted pronunciation are noted.

"Buccal" pronunciation w And and. The tongue does not take part in articulation; the exhaled stream of air encounters an obstacle not between the tongue and lips, but between the teeth that are close together (sometimes clenched) and the corners of the mouth pressed against them from the sides. A “dull” noise is formed, and when pronouncing a voiced and a voice is added to the noise; pronouncing the sound is accompanied by swelling of the cheeks.

"Bottom" pronunciation w and f. The gap is formed not by the approach of the tip of the tongue to the hard palate, but by the front part of its back. With this articulation, sibilants acquire a soft shade, reminiscent of the sound sch, pronounced without any inherent length. In some cases, such articulation may produce a hard sound.

Back-lingual pronunciation w k f. The gap is formed by the convergence of the back of the tongue with the hard palate. In this case, the noise resembles the noise of the sound x or voiced fricative g, as in the southern Russian regions.

Except in cases of distorted pronunciation w And and, Various replacements of hissing sounds with other sounds are observed. Among them, the most common are the replacements of hissing ones with whistling ones. The replacement of hissing sounds with whistling ones is not always complete, since acoustic differences between the whistling substitute and the normalized sound s are very often observed.

Sound production techniques w And and. First the sound sh is placed, and then on its base is placed and.

Sound production w carried out in a number of ways.

Rice. 5. Articulation of the sounds sh, zh, shch.---------w, w; - - - . -sch.

sa and during its pronunciation gradually (smoothly) raises the tip of the tongue towards the alveoli. As the tongue rises, the nature of the noise of the consonant changes. At the moment of the appearance of a hissing noise corresponding to the acoustic effect of a normalized w, The speech therapist fixes the child’s attention using a mirror in this position. Then he asks you to blow strongly on the tip of your tongue, adding the sound to the exhalation. A(as a result the syllable is heard sha). The child pronounces a syllable sa with the tongue in the upper position and listens carefully to what sound is produced.

The child pronounces the syllable several times sa, and the speech therapist inserts probe No. 5 under the tongue (Fig. 8). With its help, it moves the tip of the tongue to the upper position and adjusts the degree of its rise until a normal-sounding sound appears. w. The speech therapist fixes the probe in this position, asks the child to pronounce the same syllable again and listen carefully. After several practice in pronunciation sha with Using a probe, the speech therapist fixes the child’s attention on the position of the tongue and finds out whether he can independently put the tongue in the desired position.

With unimpaired pronunciation R can be supplied w And and from this sound. The child pronounces a syllable ra and at this moment the speech therapist touches the lower surface of his tongue with a spatula or probe No. 5 (Fig. 8) to slow down the vibration. When spoken in a whisper ra can be heard sha, and when loud - Ms.

Sound and usually based on sound w by turning on the voice when pronouncing it, but it can also be delivered by sound h, How w from With.

Disadvantages of sound pronunciationsch. Sound sch in Russian it is pronounced as a long soft fricative sibilant, which is characterized by the following structure of articulation organs: lips, as in w, extended forward and rounded, the tip of the tongue is raised to the level of the upper teeth (lower than with w). The front part of the back of the tongue bends slightly, the middle part rises towards the hard palate, the back part is lowered and moved forward; the velum is raised, the vocal folds are open. A strong stream of exhaled air passes through two slits: between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate and between the tip of the tongue and the front teeth or alveoli. A complex noise is produced, higher than with w(Fig. 5).

Among disadvantages of sound pronunciationsch there is a shortened pronunciation (the duration of such a sound is the same as with w), replacing with a soft whistling sound with, as well as pronouncing sch with an affricative element in the final phase, as a combination shch(“stuff” instead of pike).

For sound production sch you can use sound With. The child pronounces the syllable several times si or sa with extended whistling element: si, si... Then the speech therapist inserts a spatula or probe under the tongue and, at the moment of pronouncing the syllables, slightly lifts it, moving it back slightly. The same acoustic effect can be achieved without lifting the tongue, but only by moving it back slightly with the touch of a spatula.

If the sound h is pronounced correctly, then it is easy to get the sound from it sch, extending the final sound h fricative. A long sound is heard sch, which is subsequently easily separated from the explosive element. The sound is immediately introduced into syllables and then into words.

Disadvantages of pronunciation of the sound h. When pronouncing the sound h, the lips, as with all hissing sounds, are elongated and rounded. The distance between the teeth is 1-2 mm. The sound has complex lingual articulation: it begins with a closing element (as with the sound t) - The tip of the tongue is lowered and touches the lower incisors. The front part of the back of the tongue is pressed against the upper incisors or alveoli. Its middle part is curved towards the hard palate. The whole language moves forward somewhat. The sound ends with a slot element (as in sch), which sounds short. The boundary between the plosive and fricative (fricative) elements is not captured either aurally or articulatory, since the elements are fused together. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose, the vocal folds are open, the sound is dull (Fig. 6).

Among the disadvantages of pronunciation of the sound h, in addition to those that are common to all sibilants, it should be noted the replacement of h with a soft sibilant affricate ts, not characteristic of the phonetic system of the Russian literary language, as well as T or w.

Rice. 6 Articulation of sound h. ---------bow moment; _ . _ . _slot

The sound h can be set from soft T, pronounced in a straight syllable (ti) or reverse (am/). The child pronounces one of these syllables several times with some increased exhalation on the consonant element. At the moment of pronouncing, the speech therapist, using a spatula or probe No. 5 (Fig. 8), slightly moves the tip of the tongue back (as for articulation sch). The same acoustic effect can be obtained by inserting a probe under the tongue. At the moment of pronunciation, the speech therapist slightly lifts the tongue and at the same time moves it back slightly. The h sound is easier to produce in reverse syllables.

In some cases, disturbances of all whistling and hissing sounds are observed. There have been cases when all these sounds are realized in only one articulatory variant - a softened hissing sound. When encountering such cases, the speech therapist analyzes the defect in order to properly organize speech therapy intervention. If the disorder is classified as dyslalia, it is necessary to determine the sequence in the production of sounds. It is customary to place whistling sounds first (primarily voiceless ones), and on their basis - voiced ones. Hissing sounds are placed after the whistling sounds: first - hard, then - soft. When staging hissing sounds, the sequence of sounds being practiced is freer. It is determined by a speech therapist based on the characteristics of the manifestation of the defect.

5. Disadvantages of pronunciation of the sound j (yot)(yotocism).

The structure of the organs of articulation. The lips are somewhat stretched, but less than with And. The distance between the incisors is 1-2 mm. The tip of the tongue lies at the lower incisors. The middle part of the back of the tongue is strongly raised towards the hard palate. Its back part and root are moved forward. The edges rest against the upper lateral teeth. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage into the nasal cavity. The vocal folds vibrate and form the voice. Depending on the phonetic position of the sound, it can be articulated with a narrower or wider gap. The exhaled stream of air is weak.

Sound j(yot) is violated less frequently than the sounds described above. Its defective pronunciation most often comes down to replacing it with a soft l(in his lower or upper articulation).

You can correct the sound by relying on the vowel and: the child pronounces the combination several times ia or aia. The exhalation intensifies somewhat at the moment of pronouncing and, and a is pronounced immediately without interruption. After such a pronunciation has been mastered, the speech therapist gives instructions for a shorter pronunciation of c. In addition to the combination ia, useful to pronounce oh, oh etc. As a result, the child develops a diphthongoid pronunciation

Another example of setting the sound / (iot) is setting it from soft z s mechanical assistance. The child pronounces a syllable for (zya), repeating it several times.

During pronunciation, the speech therapist presses the front part of the tongue with a spatula and moves it back a little until the desired sound is obtained.

6. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sounds k,g, x, k, g, x (Kappacism, Gammacism, Hitism).

The structure of the organs of articulation. When pronouncing a sound, the lips are neutral and take the position of the next vowel. The distance between the upper and lower incisors is up to 5 mm. The tip of the tongue is lowered and touches the lower incisors, the front and middle parts of the back of the tongue are lowered, the back part closes with the palate. The place where the tongue connects with the palate changes under different phonetic conditions: when ka it appears on the border of the hard and soft palate, when combined with labialized vowels O And at the bow appears lower (with the soft palate). The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper back teeth. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage into the nasal cavity. The vocal folds are open. The exhaled stream explodes the closure between the tongue and the palate, resulting in a characteristic noise.

When articulating sound X in contrast to the back of the tongue, it does not completely close with the palate: a gap is created along the midline of the tongue, through which the exhaled air produces noise.

When pronouncing soft k, g, x the tongue moves forward and makes a contact with the palate (and for X- gap). The middle part of the back of the tongue approaches the hard palate. The front part (as with hard k, g, x) omitted. The tip of the tongue is slightly closer to the lower teeth, but does not touch them. The lips stretch somewhat and reveal the teeth (Fig. 7).

With kappacism and gammacism, the following disorders are observed: sound is formed by closing the vocal folds,

which sharply diverge when a high-pressure air jet passes through them. Air rushes noisily through the glottis. Instead of k, a guttural click is heard. When pronouncing a voiced voice, a voice is added to the hum. With chitism, a weak guttural noise is heard.

Rice.7. Articulation of sounds k, k; g, g; x, x.

There are cases of replacing the posterior lingual plosives k and g with the anterior lingual plosives m and d, which are called parakappacism and paratammacism. Occasionally, a type of paracappacism occurs, when the sound k is replaced X. With gammacism, replacement with a fricative is velar or pharyngeal G denoted in transcription by the Greek letter (gamma).

Soft violations g, k, x similar to hard tissue disorders g, k, x, but in some cases there is a lateral pronunciation of k and g.

Techniques for correcting these sounds come down to placing plosives in the back of the tongue from plosives in the front of the tongue, and fricatives in the back of the tongue from fricatives in the front of the tongue. Soft sounds are placed from soft, and hard sounds from hard. Sounds are produced with mechanical assistance. The child pronounces the syllable several times ta, at the moment of pronunciation, the speech therapist gradually moves the tongue back with a spatula by pressing on the front part of the back of the tongue. As the tongue moves deeper, the syllable is heard first you, Then kya, and after him ka. The sound is also set G from syllable Yes, but it can also be obtained by voicing k. Sound X placed by sound With in a similar manner: first one hears xia, after him hya and finally Ha.

The described methods of producing sounds are used for both functional and mechanical dyslalia. The production of sounds in mechanical dyslalia must be preceded by more preparatory work than in functional dyslalia. In the process, much attention is paid to “pronunciation tests”, allowing you to

Rice. 9.Scheme of the relationship between sounds when they are produced in children with dyslalia

to clarify which of the structures of the articulation organs can produce an acoustic effect that is closest to the normalized sound.

In different phonetic environments, the same phoneme is realized in different articulatory variants, so the most frequent variants of combinations should be practiced.

A condition that promotes the development of standardized sounds and facilitates the child’s process of mastering the skills of sound production of speech is an adequately chosen path of sound production. The most justified is the one that takes into account the articulatory proximity of sounds and the natural ways of its implementation inherent in speech.

Relying on this or that sound as a base one, the speech therapist, when setting it up, must proceed from the fact that only a syllable is the minimum unit in which it is realized. Therefore, we can talk about the production of a sound only if it appears as part of a syllable. All attempts to create sounds based on imitation of surrounding noises (the hiss of a goose, the noise of a train, the crackle of a machine gun, etc.) to work on pronunciation with dyslalia can only have an auxiliary value.

The proposed scheme (Fig. 9) highlights the sounds that are disrupted during dyslalia. Each of them has arrows from basic sounds. In some cases, the arrows turn out to be bidirectional, which means that there are various options approach to correction depending on which of the sounds is formed. The diagram shows that the same sound can be obtained in different ways. The order of sounds is determined by the degree of their acoustic contrast. The sounds are grouped under a phonemic feature that is essential for the work.

This scheme reflected the ideas of F. A. Pay and A. G. Ippolitova.

Conclusions and problems

In Russian speech therapy, the concept of dyslalia has developed as a type of sound pronunciation disorder that is not caused by organic disorders of the central order.

In the concept of dyslalia, functionally caused pronunciation disorders and organically caused disorders (with anatomical anomalies of the organs of articulation) are divided into independent forms of dyslalia. From dyslalia, rhinolalia is isolated into a separate form. For modern speech therapy, the search for methodologically justified ways to develop correct sound pronunciation continues to be relevant.

Test questions and assignments

1. Compare the definitions of dyslalia in the works of M. E. Khvattsev, O. V. Pravdina, O. A. Tokareva, K. P. Bekker and M. Sovak. Establish their similarities and differences.

2. Name the main forms of dyslalia, indicate the criteria for their identification.

3. Name the main types of violations of individual sounds.

4. Describe the articulation of sound (optional).

5. Describe the defects in sound pronunciation (optional).

6. When visiting a special institution, check the state of sound pronunciation in children and determine the identified violations.

7. While attending a speech therapy session, note the techniques and aids used to eliminate defects in sound pronunciation.

Literature

1. Matusevich M.I. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. - M., 1976.

2. Panov M.V. Russian phonetics. -M., 1967.

3. Pravdiva O.V. Speech therapy. - 2nd ed. - M., 1973.

4. Pay F. F. Techniques for correcting deficiencies in the pronunciation of phonemes // Fundamentals of the theory and practice of speech therapy. - M., 1968.

5. Speech disorders in children and adolescents / Ed. S.S. Lyapidevsky. - M., 1969.

6. Fomicheva M.F. Education of correct pronunciation. - M., 1971.

7. Khvattsev M. E. Speech therapy. - M., 1959.

8. Reader on speech therapy / Ed. L.S. Volkova, V.I. Seliverstova. - M., 1997. - Part I. - P. 8-119.

Speech therapy: Textbook for students of defectology. fak. ped. universities / Ed. L.S. Volkova, S.N. Shakhovskaya. -- M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 1998. - 680 p.

Issues of correct literary pronunciation are studied by a special linguistic discipline - spelling(from Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepic rules and recommendations have always been the focus of attention of Russian philologists, as well as representatives of those professions whose activities are directly related to public speaking in front of an audience: government and public figures, lecturers, announcers, commentators, journalists, artists, translators, teachers of Russian and foreign languages, preachers, lawyers. But in recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in interest in the problems of oral culture among various sectors of society. This is facilitated by socio-economic changes in our country, democratization of all aspects of life. The practice of broadcasting parliamentary debates and hearings, and live speeches by government officials, leaders of parties and movements, political observers, and specialists in various fields of science and culture has become widespread.

Mastery of the norms of literary pronunciation, the ability to expressively and correctly formulate spoken speech is gradually being recognized by many as an urgent social necessity.

Historically, the development and formation of the rules of Russian orthoepy developed in such a way that the basis of literary pronunciation was Moscow pronunciation, on which some variants of St. Petersburg pronunciation were subsequently “layered.”

Deviation from the norms and recommendations of Russian literary pronunciation is regarded as a sign of insufficient speech and general culture, which reduces the authority of the speaker and scatters the attention of listeners. Regional peculiarities of pronunciation, incorrectly placed emphasis, “reduced” conversational intonation, and ill-considered pausing distract from the correct, adequate perception of a public speech.

Erroneous pronunciation through radio and television is “replicated” to a huge audience, wittingly or unwittingly assimilated and reinforced, thereby eroding the idea of ​​correctness and purity of speech, which is necessary for every cultured person. In addition, there are certain negative socio-psychological consequences of profanity, which tends to spread (especially in conditions of round-the-clock broadcasting). Since the majority of the listener first of all pays attention to the content side of the information, the sound side of speech is not controlled by him, but is recorded on a subconscious level. In these cases, everything that contradicts the established tradition of designing Russian sounding speech: a violation of the intonation pattern of the phrase and the text as a whole, unjustified logical stress, pauses that do not correspond to the natural “flow” of speech, causes an intuitive feeling of protest in the listener, creating a feeling of anxiety and psychological discomfort.

Working on your own pronunciation and improving your pronunciation culture requires a person to have certain knowledge in the field of orthoepy. Since pronunciation is largely an automated aspect of speech, a person “hears” himself worse than others, controls his pronunciation insufficiently or does not control it at all, is uncritical in assessing his own pronunciation, and is sensitive to comments in this area. The rules and recommendations for spelling, reflected in manuals, dictionaries and reference books, seem to him to be overly categorical, different from the usual speech practice, and common spelling errors, on the contrary, are very harmless.

Therefore, in order to successfully master the orthoepic norm or deepen knowledge of Russian literary pronunciation, it is necessary, from the point of view of methodological recommendations:

¦ learn the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation;

¦ learn to listen to your speech and the speech of others;

¦ listen and study exemplary literary pronunciation, which is mastered by radio and television announcers, masters of literary expression;

¦ consciously compare your pronunciation with the exemplary one, analyze your mistakes and shortcomings;

¦ correct them through constant speech training in preparation for public speaking.

The study of the rules and recommendations of literary pronunciation should begin with the distinction and awareness of the two main styles of pronunciation: full recommended for public speaking, and incomplete(colloquial), which is common in everyday communication. The full style is characterized primarily by compliance with the basic requirements of the orthoepic norm, clarity and distinctness of pronunciation, correct placement of verbal and logical stress, moderate tempo, correct pausing, neutral intonation pattern of the phrase and speech in general. With an incomplete pronunciation style, there is excessive reduction of vowels, loss of consonants, unclear pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, excessive emphasis on words (including function words), inconsistent speech tempo, and unwanted pauses. If in everyday speech these features of pronunciation are acceptable, then in public speaking they must be avoided.

§ 235. Pronunciation of vowels

The main feature of Russian literary pronunciation in the area of ​​vowels is their different sound in stressed and unstressed syllables with the same spelling. In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo reduction. There are two types of reduction - quantitative(when the longitude and intensity of sound decreases) and high quality(when in an unstressed position the sound itself changes). Vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable undergo less reduction, and more in all other syllables. Vowels [a], [o], [e] are subject to both quantitative and qualitative reduction in unstressed syllables; vowels [i], [s], [y] do not change their quality in unstressed syllables, but partially lose duration.

1. Vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable:

a) after hard consonants in place O And A [A]: w[a]da?, n[a]ga?, M[a]skva?, s[a]dy?, z[a]bo?r ; after hard sizzling and And w on site A And O a weakened sound is also pronounced [A]: f[a]ra?, f[a]ngler, sh[a]gi?, sh[a]fer .

Note 1. After hard sizzling and, w and after ts before soft consonants a sound like [s] with an overtone [e] , designated conventionally [s uh ] : w[s] uh ]le?t, unfortunately uh ]leniyu, w[s uh ]ke?t , in forms plural words horse: lose[s] uh ]where, los[s] uh ]dy?m etc... in the forms of indirect cases of numerals on - twenty: twenties uh ]ti?, thirty uh ]ti? etc.; in rare cases, sound [s uh ] pronounced on the spot A in position before hard consonants: rzh[s uh ]Noah. w[s] uh ]smi?n .

Note 2. Unstressed [O] pronounced in conjunctions But And What , and is also allowed in some foreign words, for example: b[o]a?, b[o]mo?nd. rococo?. F[o]re?c .

Note 3. Preservation O in unstressed syllables is a feature of regional pronunciation, therefore the pronunciation M[o]skva?, p[o]ku?pka, p[o]e?dem, v[o]zi?t. railway station not up to standard;

b) after hard hissing f, w And ts on site e a reduced sound is pronounced like [s] with an overtone [e] , designated conventionally [s uh ]: w[s uh ]na?, sh[s uh ]pt?t, ts[s uh ]lu?y ;

c) after soft consonants in place of letters I And e , as well as after soft hissing h And sch on site A a weakened sound is pronounced [And] with an overtone [e] , designated conventionally [And uh ] : m[i uh ]sno?y, R[i uh ]za?n, m[i uh ]sti?, h[i uh ]sy?, sh[i uh ]di?t , as well as in the plural forms of the word area: area uh ]where, area uh ]dy?m etc.;

d) on the spot I And e a sound is pronounced at the beginning of a word [And] with an overtone [e] , denoted [And uh ] in combination with the previous one [th]: [yi uh ]here?, [yi uh ]nta?r, [yi uh ]ytso?.

Note. Preservation [A] in an unstressed syllable after soft consonants is a feature of regional pronunciation, therefore the pronunciation [v’a]za?t, bi?na, h[a]sy?, [ya]ytso?, [ya]vi?tsya does not correspond to the norm.

2. Vowels in other unstressed syllables:

a) at the absolute beginning of a word in place of letters A And O a weakened sound is always pronounced [a]: [a]rbu?z: [a]kno?, [a]car, [a]deflection;

b) after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st prestressed one, in place A And O a reduced sound is pronounced, intermediate in sound between [A] And [s] [ъ]: g[ъ]lova?, k[ъ]randa?sh, i?bl[ъ]k[ъ] ;

c) after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st prestressed one, in place and I And e pronounced reduced, average in sound between [And] And [e] , short in duration, designated conventionally [b]: [n’t]tacho?k, [l’l]soru?b, you?[n’t]su, wh[b]love?k .

3. Vowel and at the beginning of the root after a prefix or preposition, ending in hard consonants, pronounced like [s] : from the institute - and [zy]institute , with Igor - [we are] heartbroken ; saving in this position [And] and the softening of the consonant before it is a regional feature of pronunciation and not up to standard.

4. Stressed vowel sounds in place e And e . Difficulties arise in the pronunciation of a number of words due to the indistinguishability of letters in the printed text e And e , since only the letter is used to designate them e (except for educational literature for primary schoolchildren and foreign students). This situation leads to a distortion of not only the graphic, but also the phonetic appearance of the word, and causes frequent pronunciation errors. Therefore, it is recommended to remember two sets of words:

a) with a letter e , in whose place it sounds [e]: scam, spineless, bluff, being, icy conditions, firebrand, grenadier, stout, hagiography, alien, religious procession (But Godfather ), fishing line, oblivion, perplexed, unappreciated, guardianship, sedentary (settled life), successor, legal successor, surveillance, modern, yoke, barley and etc.;

b) with a letter e , in whose place it sounds [O]: hopeless, buckets, engraver, bile (acceptable bile ), biliary (acceptable gall ), mockery, traveling salesman, priest (But priest ), maneuvers, mercenary, convicted, brought in, transferred, brought in, sturgeon, fable, laid down, brought, brought, obscene, scrupulous, belt, smart, tesha, fur (coarse-haired), lye and etc.

In some pairs of words, different meanings are accompanied by different sounds of the stressed vowel [O] or [e]: expired (term) - expired (in blood), catechumen (screams like a catechumen) - catechumen (decree), perfect (singing) - perfect (opening).

§ 236. Pronunciation of some consonants

1. Consonant [G] in literary pronunciation explosive, instant sounding, when deafened it is pronounced as [To]: sleep[k], bere[k] . Pronouncing “Ukrainian” in its place G , conventionally designated [h] , does not correspond to the norm: [h]ulya?t, boots[h]i? . The exception is the word God , at the end of which it sounds [X] .

2. Instead of h in words of course, boring, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse, bachelorette party, laundry, rag, rag picker , in female patronymics ending in - ichna (Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, Ilyinichna etc.), as well as in words what, to, nothing pronounced [w] .

3. In words man, defector at the place of combination zhch , in the form of the comparative degree of adverbs tougher, harsher (And more scathingly ) in place stch , as well as in place of combinations zch And sch pronounced [sch]: loader, customer, carver, subscriber, sandstone, happy, happiness, account, electronic counting, counter, self-financing, count and etc.

4. When several consonants accumulate in some combinations, one of them is not pronounced:

a) in combination stn not pronounced [t]: teaching? [s'n']ik, ve?[s']nik, what? I?ro[sn]y ;

b) in combination zdn not pronounced [d]: po?[zn]o, right?[zn]ik, nae?[zn]ik , but in a word abyss It is recommended to leave the sound low [d] ;

c) in combination stl not pronounced [t]: happy, envious, conscientious ; in words bony And lay [t] preserved;

d) in combination stl not pronounced [T] ; this produces a double consonant [ss]: maximal? [ss]ky, turie?[ss]ky, rasi?[ss]ky .

5. In some words with a cluster of consonant sounds stk, zdk, ntk, ndk not allowed to fall out [t]: daughter-in-law, trip, summons, typist, bulky, laboratory assistant, student, patient, Irish, Scottish, but: fabric shotla[nc]a .

6. Hard consonants before soft consonants can be softened:

A) necessarily softens I n before soft ones h And With: pe?[n’s’]iya, prete?[n’z’]iya, rece?[n’z’]iya, face?[n’z’]iya ;

b) in combinations TV, dv may soften T And d: Thursday, Tver, hard [t’v’] and [tv’]; door, two, move [d’v] and [dv’] ;

c) in combinations sound And St. may soften h And With: beast, ring [z’v’] And [sound’]; light, candle, witness, saint [s’v] And [sv’] , and also in the word snake [z’m’] And [zm’] ;

G) n before soft T And d softens: ba[n't']ik, vi[n't']ik, zo[n't']ik, ve[n't']il, a[n't']ichny, ko[n't ']text, remo[n't']irovat, ba[n'd']it, I[n'd']iya, stip[n'd']iya, zo[n'd']irovat, and [n'd']ivid, ka[n'd']idat, blo[n'd']in.

§ 237. Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms

Some grammatical forms of verbs, nouns, and adjectives are characterized by special rules for the pronunciation of sounds in suffixes and endings.

1. In verbs with a particle- xia in an indefinite form and in the third person singular and plural at the junction of an ending and a particle is pronounced [ts]: meet, meet - meet [ts], check in, check in - mark [ts], check in - mark? [ts], say goodbye - goodbye? [ts].

In the form of the imperative mood in place of the combination - there are two soft sounds sound [t's'']: mark - mark? [t's''], meet - wind? [t'''] .

2. In the endings of the genitive case of masculine and neuter forms of adjectives, numerals, pronouns - Wow /-his on site G pronounced [in]: big house (lake) - big?[vy], blue flag (sea) - si?ne[vy] . The same rule applies to words today - every[v]o?day, total - ito[v]o? .

Note. In surnames ending with - aho (Shembinago, Zhivago ), sound is pronounced [G] .

3. Graphic abbreviations, found in the text, for example, initials for last name , as well as abbreviations like l (liter), m (meter), kg (kilogram), ha (hectare), p/o (“mail box”), etc. (so on), s (page) and etc. in reading they “decipher” i.e., they “expand” into full words. Graphic abbreviations exist only in written speech for visual perception only, and their literal reading is perceived either as a speech error or as irony, appropriate only in special situations.

§ 238. Peculiarities of pronunciation of Russian names and patronymics

The combination of first name and patronymic is used in various situations, both in written and oral speech: in official decrees on awards, appointments, orders, lists, for example, on personnel records, the composition of production and educational groups, in business and private correspondence, in circulation to the interlocutor, in introducing and naming third parties.

In an environment of official, business communication between people, especially in the work of a teacher, translator, editor, lawyer, businessman, government or commercial employee, there is a need to address people by name and patronymic. Many Russian names and patronymics have pronunciation options that it is advisable to take into account in a given communication situation. So, when meeting a person, when introducing a person for the first time, a distinct, clear pronunciation that is close to the written form is recommended.

In all other cases, incomplete, contracted forms of pronunciation of names and patronymics, which have historically developed in the practice of literary oral speech, are acceptable.

1. - th (Vasily, Anatoly, Arkady, Grigory, Yuri, Evgeny, Valery, Gennady ), ending in combinations - evich, - evna with a preceding separator b: Vasil Evich, Vasil Evna; Grigory Evich, Grigory Evna . When pronouncing female patronymics, these combinations are clearly preserved: Vasil Evna, Anatol Evna, Grigory Evna etc. In male patronymics, full and contracted variants are allowed: Vasya?[l'j'v']ich and Vas[l'ich], Anato?[l'j'v']ich and Anato?[l'ich], Grigo?[r'j'v']ich and Grigo?[r' ich] etc.

2. Patronymic names formed from male given names - to her And - ah (Alexey, Andrey, Korney, Matvey, Sergey, Nikolay ) end in combinations - eevich, - eevna, - aevich, - aevna: Alekseevich, Alekseevna, Nikolaevich, Nikolaevna . In their pronunciation, the literary norm allows both full and contracted variants: Alexeyevich And Alex?[i]h, Alekse?evna And Alek[s'e?]vna; Sergeevich And Serge?[i]h, Sergeevna And Ser[g'e?]vna; Korne?evich And Corn?[i]h, Korne?evna And Kor[n'e?]vna; Nikolaevich And Nikola?[i]h, Nikolaevna And Nikola?[vn]a etc.

3. Male patronymics ending in an unstressed combination - ovich , can be pronounced both in full and contracted form: Anto?novich And Anto?n[y]ch, Aleksandrovich And Alexa?ndr[y]h , Iva?novich and Iva?n[y]ch etc. In female patronymics ending in an unstressed combination - Aries , full pronunciation recommended: Alexander aries, Boris aries, Kirill aries, Victor aries, Oleg Aries etc.

4. If the middle name begins with And (Ivanovich, Ignatievich, Isaevich ), then in pronunciation with a name ending in a hard consonant, and turns into [s]: Pavel Ivanovich - Pavel[y]vanovich, Alexander Isaevich - Alexander[y]saevich .

5. Not usually pronounced ov n And m: Iva?[n: ]na, Anto?[n: ]a, Efi?[mn]a, Maxi?[mn]a .

6. Unstressed words are not pronounced - ov in female patronymics from names ending in V: Vyachesla?[vn]a, Stanisla?[vn]a .

§ 239. Pronunciation of borrowed words

Some of the borrowed vocabulary in the Russian language has some orthoepic features that are fixed in the literary norm.

1. In some words of foreign language origin, in place of the unstressed O sound is pronounced [o]: ada?gio, boa?, bomo?nd, bonto?n, kaka?o, radio, three?o . In addition, stylistic fluctuations in high-style text are possible; preservation of unstressed [O] in words of foreign origin - one of the means of attracting attention to them, a means of highlighting them. Pronunciation of words nocturne, sonnet, poetic, poet, poetry, dossier, veto, credo, foyer etc. with unstressed [O] optional. Foreign names Maurice Thorez, Chopin, Voltaire, Rodin, Daudet, Baudelaire, Flaubert, Zola, Honore de Balzac, Sacramento etc. also retain unstressed [O] as a variant of literary pronunciation.

In some borrowed words in literary pronunciation, after vowels and at the beginning of the word, the unstressed sound sounds quite clearly [e]: duelist, muezzin, poetic, aegis, evolution, exaltation, exotic, equivalent, eclecticism, economy, screen, expansion, expert, experiment, exhibit, ecstasy, excess, element, elite, embargo, emigrant, emission, emir, energy, enthusiasm , encyclopedia, epigraph, episode, epilogue, era, effect, effective and etc.

2. In oral public speech, certain difficulties are caused by pronouncing a hard or soft consonant before the letter in borrowed words e , for example, in words pace, pool, museum etc. In most of these cases, a soft consonant is pronounced: academy, pool, beret, beige, brunette, promissory note, monogram, debut, motto, recitation, declaration, dispatch, incident, compliment, competent, correct, museum, patent, pate, Odessa, tenor, term, plywood, overcoat; word pace pronounced with a hard voice T .

In other words, before e a hard consonant is pronounced: adept, auto-da-fé, business, western, prodigy, riding breeches, dumbbell, grotesque, neckline, delta, dandy, derby, de facto, de jure, dispensary, identical, boarding school, international, intern, karate, square, cafe, muffler, codeine, code, computer, motorcade, cottage, bracket, open-hearth, billionaire, model, Art Nouveau, Morse, hotel, parterre, pathetic, polonaise, purse, poetess, resume, rating, reputation, superman and others. Some of these words have been known among us for at least one hundred and fifty years, but do not show a tendency to soften the consonant.

In borrowed words starting with a prefix de- , before vowels dis- , as well as in the first part of compound words starting with neo- , with a general tendency towards softening, fluctuations in the pronunciation of soft and hard are observed d And n , For example: devaluation, deideologization, demilitarization, depoliticization, destabilization, deformation, disinformation, deodorant, disorganization, neoglobalism, neocolonialism, neorealism, neofascism.

Firmly pronouncing consonants before e recommended in foreign-language proper names: Bella, Bizet, Voltaire: Descartes, Daudet, Jaurès, Carmen, Mary, Pasteur, Rodin, Flaubert, Chopin, Apollinaire, Fernandel [de?], Carter, Ionesco, Minnelli, Vanessa Redgrave, Stallone and etc.

In borrowed words with two (or more) e often one of the consonants is pronounced softly, while the other remains hard before e: strap [rete], genesis [gene], relay [rele], genetics [gene], cafeteria [fete], pince-nez [pe; ne], reputation [re; me], secretary [se; re; te], ethnogenesis [gene] and etc.

In relatively few words of foreign origin, fluctuations in the pronunciation of the consonant before e , for example: with the standard pronunciation of a hard consonant before e in words businessman [ne; me], annexation [ne] pronunciation with a soft consonant is acceptable; in words dean, claim soft pronunciation is the norm, but hard pronunciation is also acceptable [de] And [te] ; in a word session Hard and soft pronunciation options are equal. It is non-normative to soften the consonants before e in the professional speech of representatives of the technical intelligentsia in words laser, computer , as well as in colloquial pronunciation of words business, sandwich, intensive, interval .

Stylistic fluctuations in the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants before e are also observed in some foreign-language proper names: Bertha, Decameron, Reagan. Major, Kramer, Gregory Peck and etc.

3. Solid [w] pronounced in words parachute, brochure . In a word jury pronounced soft hissing [and'] . Names are pronounced the same way Julien, Jules .

LIII. FEATURES OF RUSSIAN ACCESS

§ 240. Russian word stress

Word stress in Russian is characterized by diversity(can stand on any syllable and any part of a word: but? news, science, education, bourgeoisie etc.) and mobility (in different grammatical forms a word can move from one syllable to another: head?, head? accepted, accepted?; brave, brave? etc.).

Prepositions, conjunctions and particles usually do not have independent stress and are adjacent to independent parts of speech: out of town, haven't you been?, father, will he come, sit down? . In some cases, the emphasis shifts to the preposition: up the mountain, on? gender, for? night . Thus, independent and function words have the same verbal stress, making up a single phonetic word in sound.

Note. A small number of service parts of speech have weak stress and do not change the quality of the “stressed” vowel. These are unions but, as if, for sure, then... then , some prepositions that do not violate the semantic connection with adverbs ( along, opposite, besides, next to, between etc.), particle Well .

Compound words and words with prefixes anti-, inter-, near-, counter-, over-, super-, ex- and others may have, in addition to the main one, incidental(or secondary) accent, conventionally indicated by the sign gravis ( ‘ ). But among the complex words there are many single-stressed ones: pre-war, independent, car, hostel etc. Collateral stress usually comes first in order (closer to the beginning of the word), and basic- second (closer to the end of the word): oath?crime?, co?ntra?ka, o?kolo?mny, pro?organization, construction, aircraft construction, waterproof?, main?v?ch, inter?regional? th, inter?republican?skiy, dust jacket, vice-president?nt, e?ks-champion?n and etc.

The correct choice of stress in a word has great importance in work on the culture of oral speech. Below are examples in which erroneous stress is most common. These can be either individual words or some grammatical forms of words:

1) Common nouns:

agent, agronomy, alphabet, apo?krif, apostrophe, are?st, asymmetry, pampering, barman, devilishness, bla?govest, barrel , brave, clanging, gross, val?m val?t, religion, supremacy, evening, genesis, citizenship, grotesque, ground?e, gave? y-la?ma, hyphen?s, dia?spore, dioptre?i, dispensary, do?gmat, shaft, confessor, blinds?, muzzle?, enviable, sign, is? sk, and?canopy, iconographer, from time immemorial?, ische?rpat, katalo?g, ka?tarsis, rubber?k, pantry?ya, klobu?k, colo?ss, coll?ps, whooping?sh, kra ?working, flint, kitchen, marketing, masterful?, messiah, mimicry, hours-long, garbage chute, intention, real estate, wakeful(eye), not? netskiy, untrodden, unspeakably, unregulated (relationship), oil pipeline, newborn, provision, depreciate, facilitate, encourage, education, one-part, wholesale, inquire, review(for manuscript), review (deputy), open, partly, mindful, fir, plateau, repeated, adolescent, anticipate, force, acquisition, dispossession, sanitation, discreet, concoct ?in, concentration, means, joiner, status, statue, story, taboo?, customs, customs, trades, dancer, totem, herbal simple, deepen, Ukrainian, reduce, strengthen, facsimile, extravaganza, phenomenon(phenomenon), needle, cotton, movement, price, Christian, chassis, sorrel, expert, linguistic (norm), linguistic (sausage).

In many words there are fluctuations in stress placement: equal options - denim And denim, hazy And frosty, combo?iner And combine operator, metallurgy And metallurgy, propolis And propolis, a loop? And a loop, face And woman in labor, rust And rust, sa?zhen And soot, cottage cheese And cottage cheese, fa?nza And fanza? ; with standard stress huh?vgustovsky acceptable Augustovskiy , at birch bark acceptable birch bark? , at shell acceptable shell , at wary acceptable wary ; with standard stress industry - obsolete industry , at smart - obsolete smart , at ra?course - obsolete raku?rs ;

2) Proper names:

Aigi?, E?evno, Aze?f, A?be, Ko?be, Eli?n Peli?n, Zahoder?r, Per?res de Que?ler, Steinbeck, Sa?linger, Rua?l A Mundsen, Balmont, Vorontsova-Dashkova, Kapisa, Sergiy Radonezhsky, Seraphim Sarovsky, Salvador Dali, Jeremiah, Picasso, Zosima. Alexi?y, Ignaty Loyo?la, protopo?p Avvaku?m, Julian Tu?vim, Sokolo?v-Mikito?v, Sa?yudis, Ana?dyr, Balashi?ha, Great U? Styug, Ki?zhi, Ra?donezh, Mount Na?rodnaya, Stavropol Territory, Hanno?ver, Che?ti-Mine?i, Apoca?lipsis, Kali?Gula, Mol?kh, Carnegie Hall, Comedy? France?z. Metropolitan O'Pera, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Peru, Quebec, Sydney, Massachusetts, Missouri, Foro's, Sri Lanka.

Variable stress is allowed in some proper names: Newton (but traditionally: Newton ), Re?mbrandt (but traditionally: Rembra?ndt ), Lee?ncoln (but traditionally: Linko?ln ), Da?vid Co?perfield (but traditionally: David Copperfield Ice ).

Note. In cases where one proper name refers to two (or more) persons, objects, concepts, it is necessary to clarify the specific meaning of this word and, using encyclopedic dictionaries, find out the correct emphasis. For example, Washington George, first US President, but traditionally Washington- the capital of USA, Makbe?t - a character in Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name, but in the title of Leskov's story "Lady Ma?kbet Mtsensk district".

§ 241. Stress in individual grammatical forms

The mobility of Russian stress, i.e. its transfer from one syllable to another in various grammatical forms of a single phonetic word, causes a number of difficulties in the pronunciation of these forms.

1. Shifting emphasis to prepositions on, for, under, by, from, without possible if the sentence after the noun does not have words explaining it:

1) in combination with a preposition behind

"on the other side, behind" , For example: atgo for? river, for? mountain; pawn for? cheek, for? ear; lay hands on? back, behind? head;

"during" do for? year, for? day, for? night, for? winter; pay for? year, for? day and so on.;

2) in combination with a preposition on (with accusative case) meaning:

"in the direction of, on top of smth" , For example: fall (sit, lie down) on? floor, climb on? mountain, did something hit it? hand, on? nose, put the load on? back, put something on? head, on? legs, on? hands;

“indicating the point of contact with the support” , For example: lie down on? back, fall on? back, on? hands on? head, stand on? legs, on? hands on? head;

"based on the specified period" (with time units), for example: stock up (stretch, enough) for? year, for? day, on? night, on? winter, take out a loan for? year and so on.;

"indication of the measure of difference" , For example: on the? a year older, by? a day earlier, on? head up and so on.;

3) in combination with a preposition By (with dative case) - with the meaning of this preposition "on the surface, within" (about movement), for example: walk on? semi, by? field, by? yard, walk around? forest, fly through? sky, float across? sea, scatter over? semi, by? forest.

With other meanings of these prepositions, stress transfer may not occur, for example:

A) take something for a mountain, for a river, for a leg, for a winter, it is valued for a head, for a hand, a reward for a head, I fear for a hair, for head, legs;

b) pay attention to the hands, to the legs, to the nose, to the floor, to the day, despite the night, to the winter, the land tax;

V) longing for the sea, for the sky, to judge by the yard, for the forest, everyone got a field.

Stress transfer usually does not occur, if in a phrase a noun is followed by a word or words that explain it (subordinate to it or connected with it by a coordinating connection), for example:

A) beyond the Ural River, for a year and two months, for a year of hard work, for a day of his duty, holding the hand of a comrade, taking hold of his father’s shoulders;

b) to Mount Yaman-Tau, put the load on the back of the porter, put a hat on the head of a neighbor, older by a year and two months;

V) around the yard? hotels, on the snow and ice of the Gulf of Finland, on the Laptev Sea.

2. Stress in adjective forms.

1) the emphasis goes to the ending in the short feminine form: loud, loud?, loud, loud, louder; long, long?, long, long, long; longer; bad, bad, bad, bad; heavy, heavy?, heavy, heavy; rights(no full form) right?, right?, right? you;

2) the emphasis goes to the ending in the short form of the feminine gender and to the suffix of the comparative degree: glorious, glorious, glorious?, glorious, glorious, glorious; whole, whole, whole?, whole, whole, whole; satisfying, satisfying, satisfying?, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying; lean, fast, fast, fast, fast, fast; yu?ny, yun, yuna?, yu?no, yu?ny, yun?e;

3) the emphasis goes to the ending in the short form of the feminine gender and plural (as an equal option), as well as to the suffix of the comparative degree: poor, poor, poor?, poor, poor?, poor; pale, pale, pale?, pale, pale?, pale; important, important, important?, important, important?, more important; faithful, faithful, faithful?, faithful, faithful?, faithful; free(free) , free, free?, free, free?, free, slender, slender, slender?, slender, slender?, slender;

4) movable stress accompanied by alternation e And e: far, far, far?, far? And far, far away? And far away, yes?more; cheap, cheap, cheap?, cheap, cheap, cheap?vle; hard, tough, tough?, tough, tough, tougher; light, easy, easy?, easy?, easy?, easier; dark, dark, dark?, dark?, dark?, darker; clear, clear, clear? And clear, clear, clear, clear .

3. Difficulties in placing stress in verb forms(indefinite form, personal forms, participles, gerunds):

1) verbs ending in - edit with indefinite stress on the last syllable: bombarded, bombarded, bombarded; engraved, engraved, engraved; make-up, make-up, make-up; rewarded, rewarded, rewarded; formed, formed, formed; costume, costume, armor(armor), armored, armored; corrugated, corrugated, corrugated; grouped, grouped, grouped; sealed, sealed, sealed;

2) verbs with roots call for: called?, called, called?, called, called; named, called?, named, called, called, called, called, called, named, called; called, called?, called, called, called, called, called, called;

3) verbs with roots rub: rubbed, rubbed, rubbed, rubbed? and acceptable rubbed, rubbed ; same stress pattern in verb forms wipe, wipe ;

4) verbs lock, unlock: locked, locked?, locked, locked, locked, locked, locked in and acceptable locked, locked, locked, locked?, locked, locked; oh?now, unlocked?, oh?unlocked, oh?unlocked, oh?first, unlocked?in and acceptable unlocked?, oh?unlocked, oh?unlocked, unlocked?, oh?unlocked, oh?unlocked . Same verb stress pattern die except for the form dead , where the stress falls on the root vowel;

5) verbs remove, borrow, understand, accept, undertake, take away, take over and verb begin : With nyal, removed?, removed, removed, removed (shi), removed, removed, removed?, removed, removed; busy, busy, busy?, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy?, busy, busy; similar stress pattern in verb forms accept And undertake; understood, understood, understood?, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood?, understood, understood; take away, oh?take away and acceptable taken away, taken away?, oh?taken away and acceptable taken away, oh?taken away and acceptable taken away, taken away, taken away, taken away, taken away, taken away?, taken away, taken away; adopted, adopted and acceptable adopted?, adopted?, adopted and acceptable adopted, adopted and acceptable adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted?, adopted, adopted; begin, started, started?, started, started, started, started, started, started, started?, started, started;

6) verbs to depart, to arrive: I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll kill, I'll kill, I'll kill, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose ; same stress pattern in verb forms arrive ;

7) verbs with roots give (you?give, publish, transfer, sell, surrender ); in the verb you?give in all forms the emphasis falls on the prefix; published, published, published, published, published, published, published, published, published?, published, published, published, published , and?published, and?created, published? and acceptable And?built, and built, and built ; similar stress pattern in verb forms sell ; Pforward?t, pass?m, pass?t, pass?st, pass?m, pass?te, pass?t, passed? and acceptable passed?l, passed on?, passed on? and acceptable passed on, passed on and acceptable transmitted, transmitted, transmitted, transmitted, transmitted, transmitted? and acceptable transmitted, transmitted, transmitted; give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up and acceptable gave up .

PREPARING TEXT FOR VOICE OVER

§ 242. Pausing

Studying the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation, analyzing “difficult cases” of placing stress in words and grammatical forms, an attentive, thoughtful attitude to the sounding side of speech are necessary prerequisites for independent work on improving the culture of oral speech. But the acquired orthoepic information only partially ensures the successful preparation of a public speech, the ability to pronounce (or read) the completed voluminous text of a message, report, speech, report, etc. Suggested below guidelines can be taken into account during the speaker’s preliminary work on the text of the speech.

1. Pausing- dividing a sounding phrase into smaller speech segments (speech beats, or syntagms) is one of the most important features of sounding speech. Another feature is the presence of pauses, which naturally occur at the boundaries of speech bars and individual phrases.

Speech tact, or syntagma, is the minimum unit of content. A sentence in spoken speech is perceived by the listener and translated from one language to another according to individual speech beats. Different divisions of a phrase into speech beats can interpret the meaning of a sentence differently, for example: “Execution cannot be pardoned” , in which two pause options are possible: 1) Execute/cannot be pardoned ; 2) Cannot be executed/pardoned . Or: 1) Need to study/work/and relax ; 2) We must learn to work/and relax .

2. Correct pausing, i.e., correct division of the text into phonetic phrases, and phrases into speech bars, is the first stage in preparing the text for voicing. Although the sound segment between pauses (syntagma) can vary in length, its average length is usually seven syllables. But the speech tact (syntagma) has a relatively complete meaning and a certain syntactic design. For example: On the banks of the Moscow River,/opposite the southern port of the capital,/a modern residential area has grown up.// Pauses break up a given simple sentence into separate phrases. Another example: In order to divide speech into beats, / we need stops, / or, in other words, / logical pauses.// This complex sentence is divided into simple ones (pause after the word so you ), simple - into phrases. Thus, thoughtful pausing helps the logical analysis of individual sentences, complex syntactic wholes (see Chapter XLIX), and the entire completed text.

3. In the Russian language, orientation to punctuation marks can serve the basis for correct pausing of text. Thus, in a simple sentence with isolated participial, participial, comparative phrases, introductory and insertive sentences, and appeals, punctuation marks that highlight these syntactic constructions are signals for a pause. For example: On the southwestern outskirts of the US capital/ - Washington, / where Highway No. 95, / leading from the city to the south, / crosses the muddy Potomac River on two bridges, / opposite Arlington Cemetery, / stands a building made of grayish reinforced concrete.//

Note. The pause may be absent with isolated single introductory words and single gerunds: The adoption of a new law is, of course, necessary; When leaving, turn off the lights.

4. Pausing in cases of missing punctuation:

1) between the subject group and the predicate group: A road trip across America/looks like a trip across the ocean// (I. Ilf, E. Petrov);

2) after adverbial words, usually with the meaning of place, time, reason, as well as after additions at the beginning of the sentence: One autumn evening in 1969/in the editorial office of the newspaper “Pravda”/a conversation turned to “One-Storey America” at a meeting of young satirists//(Shatunovsky, Strelnikov);

3) before the union And , if with three or more homogeneous terms it combines the last two: Occasionally / we came across farms scattered throughout the prairie steppe / with the obligatory red barn / silo /And a mighty hundred-year-old tree in front of the porch of the house (Shatunovsky, Strelnikov).

5. Psychological pause It arises in addition to the logical one and is possible when the speaker wants to especially highlight a word and attract the attention of listeners to it. In the second case, we can talk about the ability to “hold a pause,” which is possessed by actors and experienced speakers.

Below is the text prepared for the speech with preliminary marking of pauses. Red oblique lines(/) (in texts there is a continuous oblique line) indicate mandatory pauses, blue oblique lines (¦ ) (dashed line in texts) - to possible, optional.

For Vysotsky, there are no forbidden topics, / he fearlessly, / with defiant courage / wrote and sang about everything / that worried him. / But this was the freedom / which is ensured morally, / by an exact attitude to the subject¦ or phenomenon. / Vysotsky ¦ not only records,/conveys,/reflects the drama of life./He is dramatic himself,/by the nature of his subjectivity,/individuality,/talent.//Everything/that he did,/and everything that he achieved, / - this is from restlessness, / from the feeling of anxiety that did not leave him.//

The dramatic, / in the words of A. S. Pushkin, / is associated with “passions” and outpourings of the human soul. / In full accordance with this exact observation! / Vysotsky¦ at the very time / when half-whispers reigned / on the one hand ,/and pop noisiness/ - on the other hand,/began to speak and sing in an “open voice”,/passionately,/hysterically,/sometimes turning to shouting.// Just like people sing at home,/in a free,/uninhibited ,/an environment not constrained by strict rules.//(V. Tolstykh, In the Mirror of Creativity).

§ 243. Intonation of the text

The expressive sound of the text is facilitated not only by correct pausing, but also by correct, natural intonation, which meets the requirements of the traditionally established literary norm.

In Russian there are two main types of intonation: ascending(with rising tone) and descending(with a decrease in tone). Rising intonation can also be called intonation of incompleteness, and downward- intonation of completeness.

A special increase in tone, accompanied by increased verbal stress and greater intensity of the stressed syllable, is called logical stress. It is used to semantically emphasize a word or phrase in a sentence. There is a certain pattern between the methods of intonation and punctuation marks, on the one hand, and the semantic relationships in a sentence, on the other.

1. Falling intonation(lowering tone), conventionally indicated in texts by an icon (in the examples it is highlighted bold italic

1) point: Moscow. 7 October. Today an exhibition dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of Marina Tsvetaeva opened at the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts;

2) ellipsis(if it denotes completeness of thought): "Petersburg is taken Finns... Kolchak took Syzran. Tsaritsyn..." (Bunin);

3) comma in non-conjunctive and complex sentences with enumerative relations between parts: “On July evenings and nights, quails no longer call and corncrakes, nightingales do not sing in the forest ravines, there is no smell flowers. Daytime blues forgotten, all is forgiven, and the steppe easily breathes in wide breasts…» (Chekhov);

4) semicolon(the pause between parts is longer than with a comma);

5) colon in a simple sentence: The company requires workers: mechanics, turners, milling operators; V complex sentence: And my request is next: take care of our language, our beautiful Russian language… (Turgenev).

2. Rising intonation(increasing tone), conventionally indicated in the texts by an icon (highlighted in the examples bold), is required in cases where the following punctuation marks are used:

1) exclamation point: I beg attention! Please stop debate!;

2) question mark: What is special about the current stage of development? society?;

3) comma:

a) in a series of homogeneous members of a simple sentence, connected by connecting conjunctions and, yes (in meaning "And" ), or without conjunctions, is accompanied by the intonation of the same type of enumeration: The team has come together business, cheerful, vigorous. Everyone works to the fullest return and enthusiasm;

b) in a simple or complex sentence in the presence of adversatives ( but, but, however ), separating ( either...or, then...that, not that...not that etc.), double comparative ( both...and; although..., but; if not...then etc.) conjunctions are accompanied by heterogeneous, heterogeneous intonation: rising intonation is replaced by descending: Small spool, Yes roads. Is not Street, A avenue. In economics there is no other choice: either force, or ruble ;

c) in a simple sentence with isolated members of the sentence: The editors thank readerswho sent their wishes. IN decision, adopted at meeting, the results of the work are summed up. Despite the difficult weather conditions, the transcontinental flight took place;

d) in a simple sentence in the presence of introductory words and addresses, if they are highlighted in speech time, that is, accompanied by a pause: Reportedly print, the visit of the head of government may not take place;

e) in a complex sentence on the border of its constituent simple sentences: To me Seemsthat the translation style will not be violated if we convey foreign proverbs in moderation and with tact Russians, which correspond to them in content and style, especially in cases where the literal translation is awkward and wordy(K. Chukovsky);

4) a dash in a simple sentence: Life live- not a field go. On right- sea, left- mountains; in a complex sentence: Century live- century study .

3. Rising intonation(increasing tone) is required in all cases when a pause at the boundaries of speech beats (syntagms) occurs in the absence of a punctuation mark:

OftenYou can still hear here statement:/the market in its pure form/no longer exists nowhere,/especially in industrial countries.// Cruel delusion.// If not say/illiteracy¦and blindness.// Yes,/the state today/is trying to correct everything market.// Yes,/monopolies/plan their production,/fight for control of market.// But over market,/and not over anything others!// ...Nothing useful from Togo,/what's the story economyaccumulated for century,/modern farming has not lost. // AND, I'll add,/- can not lose.// Because the market and social division labor/Not detachable.// And the deeper this division labor, /those wider, /more branched¦ market.// A Means,/and his instruments:/money,/price,/taxes,/credit/currency well.// (N. Shmelev, Either power or the ruble).

4. Logical stress(a special increase in tone, accompanied by the intensity of the sound of a stressed syllable, in texts) conventionally indicated by the icon (") (in the examples the letter being stressed is highlighted bold), is allowed only when semantically highlighting the word and phrase in the phrase:

1) within one simple sentence, it is recommended to resort to logical stress no more than once, thus emphasizing new information that is important for a given statement, since changing the place of logical stress changes the meaning of the message as a whole. For example, a sentence Pushkin was born in Moscow may have three options for setting logical stress, depending on what you need to pay attention to: a) PatShkin was born in Moscow; b) Pushkin familyAndwas in Moscow; V) Pushkin was born in Moscowe.

The presence of more than one logical stress in a simple sentence is allowed in a series of homogeneous members, if it is necessary to emphasize each of them: Pushkin's draft is a precious documentent, in which all the articles are recordedAdiy of the creative process, all its aftereffects are preservedecontinuity, all gradual layersenia;

2) in a connected text, logical stress helps the speaker clearly highlight the beginning of a new thought, emphasizes the function words that form the compositional beginnings: firstly, secondly, thus, so, of course, naturally, in the end etc.;

3) stands out accented class of words, the logical emphasis of which is typical for public speaking, since with their help the speaker expresses his attitude to the subject of speech: very, completely, absolutely, not at all, again, again, before, always, annually, usually; is, is not, is not, is possible, should not; important, little, a lot etc.;

4) stand out "reference points" text - words naming the object of speech; first of all, these are terms, as well as words that clarify the meaning of terms and explain them.

Below is an excerpt from N. Shmelev’s article, divided into speech beats, containing intonation markings and logical stress with a focus on pronunciation norms of public speech.

Legend:

(/) continuous oblique line indicates mandatory pauses, (¦ ) broken oblique line - for possible, optional pauses;

- falling intonation(lower tone);

- rising intonation(increasing tone);

(") - logical stress (a special increase in tone, accompanied by the intensity of the sound of the stressed syllable in texts).

You can learn about what orthoepy is from dictionaries and reference books of the literary language. All languages ​​of the world have certain lexical norms, which are examples of the correct use of words.

The science of spelling

Orthoepy studies the laws and rules of pronunciation of words. It is very similar to spelling, which deals with the laws of the correct spelling of words. The term "orthoepy" includes two Greek words: orthos - "true", "correct", "straight" (direction) and epos - "speech", "conversation". Therefore, to the question of what orthoepy is, one can give an answer directly translated from Greek: correct pronunciation.

Orthoepy rules

Various deviations from the norms of use and pronunciation interfere with communication, distract the listener from the meaning of the spoken speech and significantly complicate the assimilation of the spoken text. Following the rules of pronunciation of words is just as important as adhering to the rules of spelling. The correct pronunciation of one or another lexical item spelling will tell. The rules of this science make it possible to determine how to pronounce a particular word and the scope of its lexical application. Indeed, in a world where oral speech is a means of widespread communication, it must be impeccable, from the point of view of the rules of spelling.

History of Russian orthoepy

Russian orthoepy took shape already in the mid-17th century. Then the rules for pronunciation of certain words were approved, and standards for constructing phrases and sentences were laid down. Moscow became the center of the new literary language. Based on North Russian dialects and southern dialects, Moscow pronunciation was formed, which was taken as the basis of the lexical norm. The science of how to correctly pronounce this or that word came from Moscow to the remote hinterlands of Russia.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the new capital of Russia, the city of St. Petersburg, became the center of the political and cultural life of the country. Gradually, pronunciation norms changed, and clear, letter-by-letter pronunciation of words became the rule among the intelligentsia. But among the general population, Moscow pronunciation continued to be considered the norm.

Orthoepy studies such norms of pronunciation of the Russian language as stress, norms of pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, melody and intonation of spoken language.

Accent

What orthoepy is can be discussed using the rules for placing stress in Russian words. The question is not as simple as it might seem. In French speech, in the vast majority of cases, the stress is placed on the last syllable. In Russian, the stress is movable, it can fall on an arbitrary syllable, and change its location depending on the gender and case of a given word. For example, city, but cities, train, but trains, will accept, but accepted.

Sometimes incorrect pronunciation is so ingrained in spoken language that it takes a lot of effort to eradicate the error. For example, everywhere we hear calls instead of calls, contract, instead of the correct contract. The orthoepy of the word insists on: catalog, necrology, quarter instead of the established incorrect versions of these words.

Sometimes surprise helps correct stress. For example, in the mid-50s of the 20th century, the use of the word “youth” instead of the correct “youth” was widespread. The widely popular song “Anthem of Democratic Youth” helped correct the mistake. The song was created by composer Novikov based on poems by the poet Oshanin. The chorus of the anthem contained the words: “Young people sing this song.” The widespread “youth” did not fit into the rhythm or text of this musical work, so the incorrect pronunciation of the popular word was replaced by the correct one.

Transcription

The spoken word can be written down using transcription. This is the name given to recording the audible words and sounds of a language. In transcription, along with ordinary letters, special letters are also used, for example, the letter [æ] denotes an open stressed vowel, something between “a” and “e”. This sound is not used in Russian speech, but is often found when studying languages ​​of the Germanic branch.

Nowadays, special dictionaries will help you put the correct stress in a word.

Pronunciation of individual sounds

You can explain what orthoepy is using the example of the pronunciation of vowels in words of the Russian language. For example, the norm in the Russian language is reduction - weakening of the articulation of vowels in some words. For example, in the word “box” only the third sound “o” is clearly heard, and the first one is pronounced muffled. The result is a sound that resembles both [o] and [a] at the same time.

If an unstressed [o] is at the beginning of a word, it is always pronounced as [a]. For example, in the words “fire”, “window”, “glasses”, [a] is clearly pronounced in the first case. The stressed [o] does not change its meaning: the words “cloud”, “island”, “very” are pronounced with an expressed [o] at the beginning.

The sound of some consonants

The existing rules of orthoepy say that voiced consonants at the end of spoken words sound like their paired voiceless ones. For example, the word “oak” is pronounced [dup], “eye” - [voice], “tooth” - [zup], and so on.

The consonant phrases “zzh” and “zhzh” are pronounced as a double soft [zhzh], for example, we write I’m coming, we pronounce [priezhzhyayu], rattling - [rattling] and so on.

The exact pronunciation of a particular word can be found in special spelling dictionaries.

For example, Avanesov presented quite a serious work on orthoepy. The deeply researched publications by linguists Reznichenko, Abramov and others are interesting. Spelling dictionaries can be easily found on the Internet or in special departments of libraries.

1. The sound [g] before vowels, voiced and sonorant consonants is pronounced as a voiced plosive consonant: mountain, where, hail; before voiceless consonants and at the end of a word - like [k]: burned, burned [Λzh "oks"ъ], [Λzhok]. The pronunciation of the fricative sound ([ã ]) is possible in limited cases, and with fluctuations: in the forms of the words God, Lord; in interjections aha, wow, ege, gop, goplya.

2. In place of the letters zh, sh, ts, hard sounds [zh], [sh], [ts] are pronounced in all positions: parachute, brochure - [parshut], [broshur]; end, end, calico - [end], [end], [s"and ъм]. But in the word jury, the preferred pronunciation is [zh"ÿor"i].

3. In place of the letters ch, sch, soft consonants are always pronounced (ch), (uTj or (shch]: hour, choh, chur - [ch "as], [ch"oh], [ch"ur]; grove, Shchors , twitter, pike - [ro "b", ["ors", ["eb"b", ["uk".

4. In place of the letter and after zh, sh and c, the sound [s] is pronounced: lived, sewed, cycle - [zhyl], [shyl], [tsikl].

5. In place of the letter s in the affixes -sya - -s a soft sound [s] is pronounced: I’m afraid, I was afraid, I was afraid - [bΛjus"], [bΛjals"ъ], [bΛjals"].

6. In place of all consonant letters (except zh, sh, ts) before [e], the corresponding soft consonants are pronounced (sel, sang, chalk, del, tel, etc.) [s"el", [p"el] , [m"el], [d"el], [t"el], etc. (for the pronunciation of these combinations in foreign words, see § 83).

Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms

1. Unstressed ending of the nominative singular case. Part masculine adjectives -y, -y are pronounced according to the spelling: [good], [proud], [prezhn"i], [lower"i].

The pronunciation of the ending -й after [k], [g], [x] is preferable in the soft version: [n"isk"i], [poor"i], [tih"i].

2. In place of the letter g at the end of the genitive case singular. Part of the masculine and neuter adjectives -ого and -его, a fairly distinct sound [в] is pronounced with a corresponding reduction of vowels: acute, this, the one whom - [ostръвъ], [етъвъ], [тΛвъ], [кΛво]. The sound [v] is pronounced in place of the letter g in the words: today, today, total.

3. The unstressed endings of the adjectives -aya, -oe coincide when pronounced: kind, kind [dobr' - dob'].

4. The ending (unstressed) of adjectives -yu - -yuyu is pronounced in accordance with the spelling: warm, summer - [t"oplu u", [l"et"n"u".

5. Endings -е, -и in the nominative plural case. parts of adjectives, pronouns, participles are pronounced as [yi], [ii]: dobrye, blue - [dobryi], [sin"i].

6. In place of the unstressed ending of the 3rd person plural. Part of verbs of the 2nd conjugation -at - -yat is pronounced [ът]: breathe, walk - [breathe], [move "ът].

7. Forms of the verbs na -nod, -give, -hivat are pronounced with soft [k], [g], [x]: [jump"iv'l], [shudder"iv'l], [rΛzmah"iv'l].

Features of pronunciation of foreign words

Many words of foreign origin have been firmly adopted by the Russian literary language, entered the common language and are pronounced in accordance with existing spelling norms. A less significant part of foreign words relating to various fields of science and technology, culture and art, and politics (also foreign proper names) deviate from generally accepted norms when pronounced. In addition, in a number of cases, double pronunciation of foreign words is observed (cf.: s[o]net - s[a]net, b[o]le-ro - b[a]lero, etc.). Pronunciation variants with [o] in such cases characterize the pronunciation as deliberately bookish. This pronunciation does not meet the norms accepted in the literary language.

Deviations from the norms when pronouncing foreign words cover a limited layer of vocabulary and boil down mainly to the following:

1. In unstressed syllables (pre-stressed and post-stressed) in foreign words, the sound [o] is pronounced in place of the letter o: [o]tel, b[o]a, p[o]et, k[o]mmunique, m[o] derat[o], radi[o], ha[o]s, kaka[ï], p[o] etessa; in proper names: B[o]dler, V[o]lter, Z[o]lya, T[o]rez, Zh[o]res, etc.

2. Before e in foreign words, the consonants [t], [d], [z], [s], and [n], [r] are pronounced firmly: hotel, atelier, parterre, metro, interview; model, neckline, code; highway, meringue, morse; muffler, pince-nez; Sorrento; Thorez, Jaurès, also Flaubert, Chopin.

3. In unstressed syllables of foreign words with a hard consonant before [e], the vowel [e] is pronounced in place of the letter e: at[e]lie, at[e]ism, mod[e]lier, etc. In place of the letter e after and in the following foreign words, [e] is pronounced: di[e]ta, pi[e]tizm, pi[e]tet, di[e]z.

4. In place of the letter e at the beginning of the word and after vowels, [e] is pronounced: [e]ko, [e]pos, po[e]t, po[e]tessa, po[e]tic.

GRAPHICS AND SPELLING

Russian graphics

Concept of graphics

Writing arose as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. Writing associated with the use of graphic characters (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. Modern writing at different stages of development had different forms and types and related differently to sound language.

Descriptive writing originated in the form of pictography, i.e. letters with drawings. Pictography did not have an alphabet and was thus not associated with oral language. A relic of pictography in everyday life is, for example, the signs of trade and craft establishments in the form of drawings that have survived here and there. The lack of connection with oral speech allows one to read, for example, a sign-drawing “Boot” in different ways: “Shoemaker”, “Shoemaker lives here”, “Shoe mending”, etc.

At the next stage of development of writing - in ideography - the drawing is preserved, but appears first in a conventional meaning, and then turns into a symbolic sign - a hieroglyph. With such writing, the styles convey not words in their grammatical and phonetic form, but the meanings of words (cf.: road signs as ideograms: zigzag - “turn”, cross - “intersection”, exclamation mark - “caution!”, etc. ).

Attempts to simplify ideographic writing led to the emergence of phonography, a specific feature of which is the connection between style and oral speech. With this method of writing, oral speech is analyzed, divided into sounds and sound complexes, designated by means of certain symbolic signs - letters.

A letter that conveys the sound side of a language in conventional forms - letters, is called sound or speech.

Russian writing is sound. However, it contains elements of both pictography and ideography. The pictographic elements of our writing include, for example, mathematical signs (+, -, ×, :, Δ, etc.). Written signs that are used as hieroglyphs include numbers, spaces between words, quotation marks, capital letters after a period and in proper names, a question mark.

The written form of the modern Russian literary language does not simply convey the sound side of the language through letters, but in this transmission is associated with the concept of correctness, the norms of the literary language. In other words, the written form of speech is determined by both the graphic system of the language and the orthographic one.

Graphics represent the equipment used when writing (letters of the alphabet, symbols: arrows, periods, brackets, etc. punctuation marks). Spelling regulates the means of graphics in the written transmission of speech.

Graphics is an applied area of ​​knowledge about language, which establishes the composition of the styles used in writing and the sound meanings of letters.

The graphics of the Russian language and the graphics of the Latin language are different, although they have a significant number of letters that are superficially similar. Externally similar letters in Russian and Latin graphics indicate different sounds. Therefore, words written in Russian are read differently in Latin: the Russian words turnip, syrup, dew can be read in Latin as foam, coupon, bye.

Composition of the Russian alphabet

The complete list of letters used in written speech and arranged in a generally accepted order is called the alphabet. The sequence of letters in the alphabet is completely arbitrary, but practically justified when using alphabetical lists and dictionaries.

There are 33 letters in the modern Russian alphabet, and each of them has two varieties - uppercase and lowercase; in addition, the letters have some differences in printed and handwritten form.