There are special terms for each type of violation. If a pronunciation defect occurs, then we are talking about sigmatism, rotacism, etc.; when replacing the sound, the prefix "para-" is added to the name of the defect.

1. Sigmatism whistling- disadvantages of pronunciation [s-s "], [s-s"], [c] (see Fig. 1, 2). Further explanations.

When pronouncing the sound [s], the lips are stretched into a smile, the front teeth are visible. The tip of the tongue rests on the front incisors, the front part of the back of the tongue is curved. The lateral edges of the tongue are adjacent to the molars, a round gap is formed between the tip of the tongue and the front upper teeth. A groove forms along the midline of the tongue, along which a strong stream of exhaled air passes, forming a whistling noise. The narrower the gap, the higher the sound. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nasal cavity, g
the vocal folds do not produce voice.

When pronouncing [with "], the lips stretch more and tighten. The anterior-middle part of the back of the tongue rises higher, moves forward a little, and the noise becomes even higher.

When pronouncing [ц], the lips take the position of the next vowel. The sound begins with a stop element (as with [t]). The tip of the tongue is lowered, touching the lower teeth, and the front part of the back of the tongue is raised to the alveoli or upper teeth, forming a bow with them. The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the molars. The sound ends with a slotted sound, as with [s], which sounds short. The exhaled stream is strong and cold. The articulation of the sound [ц] is shown in fig. 2.

There are several types of whistling sigmatism.

Interdental sigmatism- the most common type of sigmatism. The tongue is inserted between the teeth, there is no characteristic whistle, instead of a round gap, a flat gap is observed. The same defect extends to [s] and [ts].

Labio-tooth sigmatism. In addition to the tongue, the lower lip is involved in the formation of the gap; the sound becomes like [f].

Lateral sigmatism characterized by the fact that the lateral edges of the tongue are not adjacent to the molars and the exhaled air stream does not pass through the middle of the tongue, but along the sides. The tip of the tongue and the front of the back form a bond with the alveoli, and noise is heard instead of [s]. The defect extends to [s], [ts] and paired soft

Tooth parasigmatism. Instead of a gap, the tongue forms a bow; a sound like [t] or [d] is heard. The sound [c] loses one of the elements ([t] or [s]).

Hissing parasigmatism- the tongue assumes a position as when pronouncing [w] or a shortened [w].

Techniques for making whistling sounds

Corrective work is carried out depending on what type of violation is present in the child.

With labio-tooth sigmatism, the child is shown the correct articulation in front of the mirror and the lower lip is removed from the teeth.

With interdental sigmatism, the child is asked to pronounce the syllable "sa" with clenched teeth.

With lateral sigmatism, special preparatory work is carried out to activate the muscles of the tongue.

When staging whistling sounds, such articulatory gymnastics exercises as “Smile”, “Let's brush the lower teeth”, “Groove”, etc. are used. The child’s ability to strongly blow air through the mouth and control exhalation with the palm of a cotton wool or strip of paper is practiced. The air jet should be cold and strong. You can use speech therapy probes or sticks. You need to ask the child to smile, rest his tongue on the lower teeth. Put a stick along the tongue so that it presses only the front of it. part. Close your teeth and blow hard. Fix pronunciation of sound [with] You can first with a stick, and then without it.

The sound [c] can be imitated if the pronunciation of [t] and [s] is good. With the tip of the tongue lowered, the child is asked to pronounce [t] with a strong exhalation. The front of the back of the tongue is pressed against the upper incisors. Usually [ts] is placed in reverse position, and consolidation begins with reverse syllables.

When setting voiced pairs, the voice is additionally turned on.

2
.Sigmatism of hissing- violation of pronunciation [w], [g], [h], [u]. On fig. 3, 4 shows the articulation of these sounds.

When pronouncing the sound [w], the lips are extended forward and rounded, there is a distance of 4-5 mm between the teeth. The tip of the tongue is raised to the alveoli, the lateral edges are pressed against the molars, the middle part of the back of the tongue bends, the palatine curtain is raised and closes the passage into the nasal cavity. Warm air passing through the middle of the tongue. The sound [g] has the same articulation, but with the addition of a voice. There are several types of
igmatism hissing.

"cheek" pronunciation[and], and [w]. Articulation occurs without the participation of the tongue, the teeth are very close together or compressed, the corners of the mouth are pressed against the teeth. A "dumb" noise is generated. When pronouncing [g], a voice is added to it. With this type of disorder, the cheeks are usually swollen.

"Lower" pronunciation[g] and [w]. hissing ones acquire a soft shade, as with [u].

Posterior pronunciation[g] and [w]. In this case, the gap is formed by the convergence of the hard palate with the back of the back of the tongue. There is a noise resembling noise at the sounds [x] or [g].

Sometimes there may be cases of replacing hissing sounds with others, for example, whistling.

Techniques for setting sounds[w] and [g]. First put [w], and then - [g].

Lip exercises are used: “Donut” - round the lips, as if pronouncing [o]. Exercises for the tongue: "Cup", "Delicious jam", "Focus", etc.

The sound [w] can be put from the sound [s]. The child is asked to say the syllable "sa" several times. At this time, the speech therapist smoothly, using a probe, spatula or spoon, raises the tip of the tongue towards the alveoli. As it rises, the noise changes and acquires a character corresponding to [w]. The speech therapist fixes the child's attention on this position. Later, the child tries to independently take the correct articulatory position.

If the pronunciation of the sound [r] is not disturbed in the child, then the sound [w] can also be put from him. The child is asked to pronounce the syllable "ra". At the moment of its pronunciation, the speech therapist touches the lower part of the tongue with a spatula and slows down its vibration. If the child speaks in a whisper, then “sha” is heard, with a loud pronunciation, “zha” is heard. The sound [g] can be delivered from the sound [w] with the inclusion of voice or from [h] as [w] from [s].

Disadvantages of pronunciation of the sound [u].

The articulation of this sound is similar to the articulation of the sound [w]: the lips are located in the same way, the tip of the tongue is raised up, but slightly lower than with [w]. The front part of the back of the tongue bends, and its middle part rises to the hard palate. The back is lowered and moved forward. The palatine curtain is up. Exhaled air passes in the middle of the tongue into the resulting gap. The air jet is long and warm.

Sound u can be put from the saved sound [w] by imitation.

Another way of setting is from the sound [s "]. The child is asked to pronounce the syllable "si" or "sya" several times with a long whistling. With the help of a spatula, the tongue is somewhat moved back until the desired sound is obtained.

If the sound [h "] is pronounced correctly, then it is easy to put [u] from it. The child pronounces the sound [h"] elongated, resulting in [u]. This sound must immediately be introduced into syllables, and then into words.

Disadvantages of pronunciation of sound [h].

Sound articulation [h "]: lips are pushed forward and rounded, teeth are drawn together or closed, the tip of the tongue is lowered and touches the lower teeth. The sound begins with a stop element and ends with an explosive element that sounds short. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose, the sound deaf and soft.

Pronunciation flaws are usually the same as other sibilants. Sometimes instead of the sound [h "] a soft affricate [ts"], [t"] or [sh"] is pronounced.

The sound [h "] is set from [t"]. The child is asked to pronounce the syllable “at "” several times, and at this time the speech therapist, using a probe or spatula, slightly pushes back the tip of the tongue. The sound [h "] is easier to put in reverse syllables.

3
. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sounds [l] and [l "] - lambdacism and paralambdacism. See the articulation of these sounds in fig. five.

When articulating the sound [l], the lips are neutral and take the position of the next vowel. The tip of the tongue is raised and may be in contact with the alveoli. A gap is formed on the sides of the tongue through which air passes. The air stream is weak, warm. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The anterior middle part of the back of the tongue is lowered, and its root part is raised and pulled back, forming a spoon-shaped depression.

When articulating a soft [l "], the lips are somewhat pulled to the sides, and the anterior-middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate and moves forward, the back of the back of the tongue is significantly advanced and lowered.

Among the violations of pronunciation [l] there is sound distortion: a two-labial sonorant sound is pronounced, reminiscent of a short [y] or English [w].

Much more common are cases of paralambdacism, when [l] is replaced by a short [s] or [l "] and [j] .

When setting the sound [l] use the exercises "Chatterbox", "Cup".

The child is invited to pronounce the combination "ya" with a short pronunciation [s]. As soon as the child learns the desired pronunciation, he is asked to pronounce these sounds again, but at the same time the tongue should be clamped between the teeth. Then the combination "la" is clearly heard.

It happens that already knowing how to pronounce the sound correctly, the child continues to hear his former sound. Therefore, it is necessary to draw his auditory attention to the sound that is obtained during staging.

4
. Disadvantages of pronunciation p and [p "] - rotacism and pararotacism. Articulation is shown in fig. 6.

When pronouncing [p], the lips are open and take the position of the next vowel, the distance between the teeth is 4-5 mm. The tip of the tongue is raised and vibrates at the alveoli with a hard [p] or at the upper incisors with a soft [p "]. The root part of the tongue is lowered, the lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars, the air stream is strong and passes in the middle.

Rotacism is of several types:

♦ [r] is not pronounced at all;

♦ velar [p] - not the tip of the tongue vibrates, but the palatine curtain, to which the root of the tongue is close;

♦ uvular [p] - a small tongue vibrates;

♦ lateral rotacism - one of the lateral edges of the tongue vibrates, resulting in a combination of sounds "rl";

♦ coachman [r] - closed lips vibrate, and it turns out "prr";

♦ single-hit [r] - instead of vibration, a single blow of the tip of the tongue against the alveoli occurs, and an apparent sound [r] is formed, similar to the sound [d];

♦ buccal [r] - one or both cheeks vibrate due to the fact that a gap for the exhaled jet is formed between the lateral edge of the tongue and the upper molars.

There are several types of pararotacism:

♦ [r] is replaced by the sound [v], pronounced without vibration, with lips;

♦ [p] is replaced by the sound [d];

♦ [r] is replaced by the sound [s];

♦ [p] is replaced by the sounds [l], [g] or [y].

When staging the sound [p], the exercises “Fungus”, “Horses”, “Coachman”, etc. are used.

Usually the sound [r] is set mechanically using a speech therapy probe. The child is asked to raise the tongue to the alveoli, the lateral edges should be pressed against the molars. Say “tdd”, “ddd” repeatedly at a fast pace.

When the child has mastered the pronunciation of these combinations well, he is asked to blow strongly on his tongue, and at this moment a vibration should occur.

Another way of staging this sound is to pronounce "tzh" with an elongated second element. When the child pronounces these sounds, the speech therapist inserts a probe with a ball at the end under the tongue, touching the lower surface, and moves the probe right and left with quick movements.

The technique of setting the sound [r] from the combination “zzz-a” turns out to be effective. The child moves the tongue up, continuing to pronounce this combination of sounds. At this moment, the speech therapist with the help of a probe produces fluctuations of the tongue to the right and left, reaching the vibration of the tongue. The sound [p "] is put similarly from the syllable "zi".

5. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sounds k, g, x, [k "], [g"], [x"] - cappacism, gamacism, chitism. The articulation of these sounds is shown in Fig. 7, 8.

When pronouncing the sound [k], the lips take the position of the next vowel, the distance between the teeth is about 5 mm. The tip of the tongue is lowered and distant from the lower teeth, the back of the back of the tongue closes with the palate. At the moment of pronouncing the sound, the bow between the sky and the tongue explodes, and air flows through the resulting passage, forming a characteristic noise.

When articulating the sound [x], the back of the back of the tongue does not completely close with the palate: a gap is formed in its middle part, through which air escapes, producing noise.

When pronouncing soft pairs of these sounds, the tongue moves slightly forward, towards the middle part of the hard palate.

With cappacism, instead of the sound [k], a laryngeal click is heard, with gamacism, a voice is added to it. With chitism, a faint guttural noise is heard.

Paracapacism includes substitutions such as replacing [k] with [t] or with [x].

The production of the sound [k] can be done by imitation or mechanically. With mechanical action, the child is asked to pronounce the syllable "ta" repeatedly. At this time, the speech therapist, using a spatula, advances the child's tongue back, pressing on the front of the tongue. First, the syllable "ta" is transformed into the syllable "tya", then into the syllable "kya", and then the syllable "ka" is heard.

When correcting paracapacism, the child's attention should be drawn to the difference in sounds, i.e. on their differentiation, along with the production of sound [k].

The shortcomings of the pronunciation of the sounds [g] and [x] are generally similar to the described varieties of cappacism and paracapacism.

The techniques for correcting and staging these sounds are the same as when staging the sound [k]. The sound [g] is put from the syllables “yes - dya - gya - ha”; sound [x] from the syllables "sa - xia - hya - ha".

This is followed by exercises on consolidation, automation and differentiation of sounds, if substitutions of sounds were observed.

6. Disadvantages of sound pronunciation ([th]) Usually the child replaces this sound with a soft [l "].

When pronouncing the sound [th "], the lips are stretched, but less than when [and]. The tip of the tongue lies at the lower teeth, the middle part of the back of the tongue is strongly raised to the hard palate, and the back part is pushed forward. The edges of the tongue rest against the upper lateral teeth. The vocal folds vibrate and create a voice, the exhaled stream of air is weak.

There are two ways to fix the sound. With the first method, the sound can be put from the vowel [and]. The child is asked to pronounce the vowel combinations “ai”, “aia”, “oi”, “io”, increasing the exhalation at the moment of pronouncing [and]. Gradually, the child is asked to pronounce [and] more briefly, reaching the desired sound [th].

Another way to set the sound [and] is to set it from soft [z "] with mechanical help. The child pronounces the syllable "zya" several times, and at this time the speech therapist pushes the tongue back with a spatula or probe until the desired sound is obtained.

Dysgraphia- a specific violation of the processes of writing. Children with dysgraphia are characterized by violations of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, disorders of mental processes, emotional-volitional sphere.

It is customary to distinguish several types of dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia. With her, the child both pronounces words and writes them. It manifests itself in substitutions, omissions of letters, similar to the omissions of sounds in oral speech. Occurs with dysarthria, rhinolalia.

2. Acoustic dysgraphia - dysgraphia resulting from violations in the differentiation of phonemes. The child replaces letters that sound similar. Most often, whistling - hissing, voiced - deaf, affricates and their components are replaced. Sometimes children incorrectly indicate softness in writing, as a result of a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants.

This type of dysgraphia is most clearly manifested in sensory alalia, when letters that are distant in articulation and acoustically can be mixed.

3. Dysgraphia as a result of a violation of language analysis and synthesis. It manifests itself in distortions of the structure of words and sentences. Due to violations of phonemic analysis, the sound-letter structure of the word is especially affected. The following errors may be observed: omissions of consonants during their confluence; omissions of vowels; permutations of letters or their addition; omissions, permutations and additions of syllables. Violations at the sentence level are manifested in the continuous spelling of words, especially words with prepositions, separate spelling of words, for example, separating the root from the prefix.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech. It manifests itself at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts. The child breaks the sequence of sentences that do not match the sequence of events. In sentences, the morphological structure of the word is violated, prefixes, suffixes, case endings, prepositions and the number of nouns are replaced. In addition, the child has difficulty constructing complex sentences.

5. Optical dysgraphia. It manifests itself as a result of underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis, synthesis and spatial representations. When writing, letters are distorted and replaced. Most often, letters similar in spelling are interchanged, which consist of the same elements, but are arranged differently when writing (“v” and “y”); letters that have the same elements, but differ in some additional elements (“l” and “m”). There is a mirror spelling of letters; omissions of elements, especially when connecting letters, which may contain the same, extra elements or incorrectly located elements.

Dysgraphia can also be accompanied by non-verbal symptoms.

7. Dyslexia is a partial specific violation of the reading process. Dyslexia occurs as a result of the lack of formation of higher mental functions and manifests itself in persistent errors. The causes of dyslexia can be organic and functional in nature. Most often, dyslexia manifests itself in speech and neuropsychiatric disorders. Children with dyslexia have difficulties in spatial orientation, in determining the right and left sides, top and bottom. In the psychological aspect of the study of dyslexia, it is considered as a violation of the operations of the reading process, namely, visual perception and discrimination of letters, the choice of a phoneme, the fusion of sounds into syllables, the synthesis of syllables into a word, and words into sentences.

There are several types of dyslexia.

Phonemic dyslexia associated with the underdevelopment of the phonemic system of the language. The following functions of the phonemic system are distinguished: a semantic function, when a change in one phoneme or one feature can lead to a change in meaning; auditory differentiation of phonemes - one phoneme differs from another articulatory and acoustically; phonemic analysis or decomposition of a word into phonemes. Phonemic dyslexia is divided into two forms. The first one is associated with the underdevelopment of phonemic perception, which manifests itself in the difficulties of assimilation of letters and the replacement of letters that are similar in articulation and acoustically (“k-g”, “sh-s”, etc.). The second form of reading disorders is associated with a violation of phonemic analysis. At the same time, violations of the sound-syllabic structure and letter-by-letter reading are observed. The child can skip letters when consonants collide, insert extra vowels between consonants, rearrange letters and syllables in words.

semantic dyslexia It manifests itself in the fact that the child does not understand the meaning of what is read with a safe reading of the text. These difficulties arise in a child as a result of a violation of sound-syllabic synthesis and fuzzy ideas about syntactic relationships in a sentence. In the process of reading, the child divides words into syllables and, as a result, does not understand the meaning of what they read. Children are not able to combine successively pronounced syllables into a single whole. They read mechanically, without understanding the meaning. Children with such a disorder cannot pronounce a word that is pronounced separately by sounds with short pauses between them (c, o, d, a); reproduce a word divided by voice into syllables (ma-shi-na-e-ha-la). In the process of reading, words are perceived out of touch with the rest of the sentence.

Agrammatical dyslexia arises as a result of underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech, syntactic, morphological generalizations. With this type of dyslexia, changes in case endings and the number of nouns are observed, nouns incorrectly agree in gender, number and case with adjectives; incorrectly used generic endings of pronouns; verb forms change.

mnestic dyslexia It manifests itself in the fact that it is difficult for a child to learn letters and it is difficult to differentiate them. It is caused by a disturbed process of establishing a connection between a sound and a letter and a violation of speech memory. It is difficult for children to reproduce a chain of 4-5 sounds or words. Even if they reproduce them, there are gaps in sounds, their substitutions, a violation of the sequence of sounds.

Optical dyslexia manifests itself in the difficulties of assimilation and mixing of letters that are graphically similar. This type of dyslexia is similar to optical dysgraphia in its manifestations, but here the letters are not capitalized, but printed. Children mix [l] and [d], which differ from each other in additional elements; they mix [n] and [n], which differ from each other in that the same elements of these letters are located differently in space. This happens because the child's optical-spatial perception is underdeveloped, visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis are disturbed, there is no differentiation of ideas about similar forms.

Non-verbal manifestations can also be observed: when drawing complex objects, the child misses, distorts some details of the drawing. It is difficult for children to construct a letter from its elements, complete one or more elements and make another letter, because all these operations require a certain analysis and synthesis. In literal optic dyslexia, impairments occur in isolated letter recognition, while in verbal optic dyslexia, impairments occur in reading.

Tactile dyslexia observed in blind children. It is based on difficulties in tactile differentiation of Braille letters. When reading, there is a mixture of letters that have the same number of dots or dots that are mirrored; points below or above, or those that differ by one point.

When examining children, the state of vision, hearing, nervous system, and cognitive activity are taken into account. The survey is carried out comprehensively, with the involvement of various specialists.

The types of disorders in dysgraphia and dyslexia are largely similar, so the methods of correctional work have much in common and are considered together.

Firstly, work is underway to develop phonemic perception, which is especially impaired in phonemic dyslexia, articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia and dysgraphia based on phoneme recognition disorders. The work is carried out in two stages. At the first stage, the pronunciation and auditory images of the sounds that are mixed are refined. The work is carried out based on visual, auditory, tactile analyzers: the sound is distinguished in syllables, its place in the word is determined, its place in relation to other sounds, it is distinguished from the text and the sentence. At the second stage, a comparison of sounds that were mixed by ear and by pronunciation is carried out. Differentiation occurs in the same way as at the first stage, but the speech material should not contain an isolated sound, but mixed sounds. In the process of work, each practiced sound is associated with a specific letter and written exercises are carried out that contribute to the differentiation of sounds. Before starting work on the elimination of articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia, the sound pronunciation is corrected.

When correcting phonemic dyslexia and dysgraphia due to a violation of language analysis, the development of language analysis and synthesis is carried out. For this, the following types of exercises are offered: come up with a sentence based on a plot picture and count how many words it contains. A number is called, and the child must make a sentence with that many words. Then it is proposed to increase or decrease the number of words in the sentence. Draw up a sentence scheme, indicate the place in the sentence of the named word, etc.

Work on the development of analysis and synthesis in syllables should begin with non-speech techniques: ask the child to tap or slap the number of syllables in a word. Gradually, the child is taught to distinguish vowels in words and explain to him that there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. Previously, the child must be able to distinguish vowels from consonants. For this, various techniques and methods are used. Work begins with monosyllabic words, gradually becoming more complex.

Various exercises are carried out for consolidation. For example:

♦ speech therapist calls the word, the child must raise the number corresponding to the number of syllables in the word;

♦ name the first syllables in the names of objects depicted in the proposed pictures, write them down. Read the word or sentence that came out;

♦ find out the missing syllable with the help of a picture;

♦ select from the text words with a certain number of syllables.

In the formation of phonemic analysis and synthesis, it is necessary to first use only vowel sounds, and then gradually introduce consonants to them. Initially, this work is carried out with the help of auxiliary tools - chips and graphic diagrams. The child learns to isolate sounds and fill in graphic schemes with the help of chips.

At the next stage, phonemic analysis is performed on speech material, the child determines the number of sounds in words, names the first and subsequent sounds in words.

At the third stage, the child no longer pronounces syllables, but performs all actions mentally, i.e. work goes at the level of representations.

Here the principle of complication is applied: from easy to complex. Written works are widely used: insert a letter into a word; write out words with a certain number of syllables; transform words by adding sound, rearranging sound, changing sound; make graphic schemes of proposals.

At the initial stages of work, pronunciation occurs, which is gradually reduced. All subsequent work takes place in the mental plane, according to the idea.

When eliminating agrammatic dysgraphia and dyslexia, the task is to form morphological and syntactic generalizations in the child, ideas about the structure of the sentence.

Work begins on refining the structure of proposals. First, simple two-part sentences are taken, consisting of a noun and a verb in the third person of the present tense (The boy is walking). Then the sentences are supplemented with a direct addition (Mom washes the frame. Daughter writes a letter to dad). It is useful to add words denoting a sign of an object to sentences.

When constructing a proposal, it is necessary to rely on graphic diagrams. First, instead of a sentence, the child draws up a graphic diagram, and then writes it under the sentence.

Additionally, such types of tasks as answering a question, making sentences orally and in writing are used.

The function of inflection is formed, i.e. the change of nouns by cases, numbers, gender is explained to the child; agreement of nouns with adjectives and verbs, etc. This includes written and oral work.

The same work is carried out in the elimination of semantic dyslexia, which is due to the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech. Semantic dyslexia is manifested in an inaccurate understanding of the sentences read. If semantic dyslexia manifests itself at the word level during syllabic reading, then it is necessary to develop sound-syllabic synthesis. You can use the following exercises:

♦ name a word pronounced separately by sounds;

♦ name the word, pronounced in syllables together;

♦ to form a word from the syllables given in disorder.

At the same time, you need to carry out exercises for reading comprehension: read the word and find a picture for it; choose from the text the sentence corresponding to the picture; read the sentences and be able to answer questions on them.

When eliminating optical dysgraphia and dyslexia, work takes place in several directions. First, it is necessary to develop visual perception, recognition of shape, size, color. First, the work is based on various images of the contour of the object, and then the transition to letter recognition is gradually carried out (for example, find a letter in a number of others, correlate printed and written letters, add or remove elements of letters, etc.).

Children's ideas about size, shape and color are being clarified and developed. To complete these tasks, you need to have geometric shapes of different colors and shapes. Tasks are selected to clarify any of the features.

With this form of dyslexia and dysgraphia, it is necessary to develop visual memory. To do this, use the game "What has changed?", "What is gone?" and others that require memory development.

Work on the formation of spatial representations and the designation of these relations in speech is also considered necessary. First, the child is taught to navigate in his own body, and then in the surrounding space.

To develop orientation in the surrounding space, the child first determines the place of objects relative to himself, then relative to objects located on the side, then the spatial relationships between 2-3 objects or their images are determined. Then the speech therapist offers the child instructions on how to place the object in space. The child must follow this instruction, and then say how the objects are located relative to each other and relative to him.

Gradually, the transition to the spatial arrangement of letters and numbers is carried out. Sample tasks:

♦ draw a circle, below - a dot, and on the left - a square;

♦ write letters to the right or left of the dash, etc.

At the same time, work is being carried out to develop a visual analysis of letters and images, to decompose letters into separate elements, to identify similarities and differences between letters and their elements.

When eliminating optical dyslexia and dysgraphia, a great place is occupied by work on the differentiation of optical images of letters that are mixed. For better memorization of images, these letters are correlated with the image of any objects or animals (for example: O - donut, F - beetle, F - eagle owl). Techniques for constructing letters from their elements, various riddles about letters are used.

First, children learn to distinguish letters in isolation, then - in syllables, words, sentences and texts.

These types of work involve as many different analyzers as possible.

8. Stuttering is a violation of the tempo-rhythmic organization of speech, which is due to the convulsive state of the muscles of the speech apparatus. Allocate predisposing and producing causes leading to stuttering. Predisposing reasons may be:

♦ neuropathic burden of parents;

♦ neuropathic features of a stuttering child;

♦ constitutional predisposition of the child;

♦ hereditary burden plus adverse effects environment which include the physical weakness of children, the accelerated development of speech, the lack of positive emotions and the development of motor skills, a sense of rhythm;

♦ brain damage in fetal development or in the postnatal period of development due to infectious diseases.

The group of producing causes consists of numerous anatomical and physiological causes: injuries, concussions, organic brain disorders, the consequences of childhood diseases, diseases of the nose, pharynx and larynx, etc.; mental and social causes: one-time or short-term trauma, most often fright or fear, improper upbringing in the family as a long-term psychological trauma, acute psychological trauma, incorrect formation of speech in childhood, excessive speech overload, age mismatch with the requirements, polyglossia (simultaneous mastery of several languages ), imitation of stutterers, retraining of left-handedness.

There are two groups of symptoms in stuttering. Physiological symptoms include speech convulsions, disorders of the nervous system, speech and general motor skills. Psychological symptoms include speech stutters and various disorders of expressive speech; the child fixes attention on his defect, logophobia, various speech tricks can develop.

The main symptom of stuttering is speech spasms. They are tonic - short jerky or prolonged muscle contraction - tone (n-finger); clonic - rhythmic repetition of the same convulsive muscle movements - clonus (pa-pa-finger). Depending on where the convulsions predominate, they can be respiratory, vocal and articulatory.

When stuttering, three forms of respiratory failure are noted: convulsive exhalation, convulsive inhalation, convulsive inhalation and exhalation, sometimes with a break in the word.

Convulsions in the speech apparatus are also different, they can be closing, opening, vocal. In the articulatory apparatus, convulsions can be labial, lingual, convulsions of the soft palate.

Stuttering is characterized by violations of general and speech motility, manifested in a variety of tics, violent movements and speech tricks.

When stuttering, children can be divided into 3 groups based on the degree of fixation on their defect.

1. Zero degree of painful fixation: children do not experience discomfort from the consciousness of their defect or do not notice it at all. They are not shy, touchy, and do not try to correct their speech.

2. Moderate degree of painful fixation. Older children are aware of their defect, are shy, hide it, avoid communication.

3. Pronounced degree of painful fixation. In children, most often adolescents, there are constant worries about the defect, there is a feeling of inferiority. They have a fear of communication and care in a painful state.

There are three degrees of stuttering: mild, when stuttering occurs only in an excited state or when trying to speak quickly, it is overcome quickly; medium, in which in a calm and familiar environment they stutter a little and speak easily, and in emotional situations a strong stutter is manifested; severe degree, when they stutter constantly, throughout the speech.

Stuttering can be permanent; undulating, i.e. sometimes intensify, sometimes weaken, but not completely disappear, and recurrent - it can disappear, and then reappear.

Examination of children is carried out in a complex, together with a psychologist, a neuropathologist, if necessary, specialists of various medical profiles are involved.

Treatment is also complex and includes drug treatment, physiotherapy and psychotherapeutic effects.

Drug treatment aims to normalize the activity of the nervous system, eliminate convulsions and improve the body as a whole.

Psychotherapeutic influence is carried out directly and indirectly. Direct influence implies the impact of the word in the form of clarification, persuasion and training. Indirect influence is the influence through the collective, the surrounding world, nature, regimen, etc. All types of psychotherapy are aimed at eradicating the fear of speech and situation in stutterers, the feeling of inferiority and fixation on their defect.

Speech therapy work is the pedagogical part of an integrated approach and includes a system of various speech therapy classes, work with educators and parents. This work can also take place with direct and indirect impact. Direct impact is carried out during speech therapy classes, individual or group. Indirect influence involves a system of speech therapy for all regime moments in a child's life and the attitude of his environment towards him. Particular importance is attached in this work to the speech mode of the child.

Speech therapy classes are conducted sequentially, in stages, taking into account the degree and type of stuttering, personal and psychological characteristics of the child, based on the activity and consciousness of the child. Various teaching methods are used, including visual and technical means.

An important section of this work is the use of speech therapy rhythms, which is a complex of musical and motor exercises for speech therapy correction.

When organizing all types of work, it is important to take into account the age of the child and know that for preschoolers the main place is occupied by gaming and educational activities, to a lesser extent - drug treatment; in adolescents and adults, on the contrary, greater importance is attached to medical influence and psychotherapy, and less importance is attached to pedagogical methods.

Speech therapy classes use technical and visual teaching aids. The visual ones include textbooks, board games, filmstrips, records, etc. Special technical means include devices that help in working with stuttering children: for example, the Derazhnya proofreader, the Echo apparatus, and tape recorders.

The Derazhnee apparatus works on the muting effect. Noises of different strengths are fed through special tubes, ending with olives immediately into the ear canal, and drown out one's own speech. This makes it easier to carry out various auditory exercises, because. hearing control is turned off. Gradually, the force of muffling decreases, and children learn to speak without the device.

This type of correction is not shown to everyone, because. some react painfully to extraneous noises.

In speech therapy work, tape recordings are widely used. First, the stutterer listens to samples of correct speech on a tape recorder, then his own speech is recorded. After that, the child, together with a speech therapist, listens to the recording and analyzes it. Sometimes the performances of artists are listened to, and the child imitates them in his performance. Classes with a tape recorder are usually carried out in cases where the child has a fixation on his defect and awareness of his incorrect speech.

All methods of speech therapy work with stutterers are divided depending on age: work with preschoolers, work with schoolchildren, adolescents and adults.

1. Disadvantages of pronunciation of soundsR and R (distortion - rotacism, substitutions - pararotacism).

Organs of articulation. The lips are open and take the position of the next vowel sound, the distance between the teeth is 4-5 mm. The tip of the tongue rises to the base of the upper teeth. It is tense and vibrates in the passing air stream. The anterior middle part of the back of the tongue flexes. The back of the tongue is pushed back and slightly rises to the soft palate. The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars, the gloto-expiratory jet passes in the middle. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose,

Rice.1. Articulation of sounds p, p. _______ R; _ . _ . _ R

Soft sound R differs from the hard one in that when it is articulated, the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate (approximately as with the vowel and), the tip of the tongue is slightly lower than with R, the back of the back of the tongue, together with the root, is advanced forward (Fig. 1).

breaking hard R it happens velar or uvular. With velar articulation, a gap is formed at the site of convergence of the root of the tongue with the soft palate, the exhaled air passing through this gap causes a chaotic multi-shock vibration of the soft palate. As a result, noise arises, which is mixed with the tone of the voice. With uvular R only a small tongue vibrates; vibration is harmonic in nature and is not accompanied by noise.

Complicated and difficult to correct is lateral articulation R(lateral rotacism). One of the lateral edges of the tongue vibrates, the bond between the tongue and the molars breaks, and a voice-expiratory stream emerges through it, as with a sound l, as a result, a sound is pronounced in which, as it were, merge R and l.

With cheek pronunciation R a gap for the exhaled air stream is formed between the lateral edge of the tongue and the upper molars, as a result of which the cheek oscillates (vibrates). In this case, noise is superimposed on the tone of the voice. Rarely, the disorder is bilateral.

Slightly less common single-hit R, in which there is no vibration, but the place of articulation is the same as with a normally pronounced sound; he is sometimes called protorny.

Even less common coachman, when close lips vibrate.

Among pararotacisms there are sound substitutions R double soft R, and also l, / (iot), d, d and etc.

Soft R can be violated in the same way as a hard one, but at the same time, there are cases when only a hard sound is violated, and a soft one turns out to be undisturbed.

Sound staging techniques.

By imitation. This technique only occasionally leads to positive results, so you have to use others more often.

The most common approach is sound productionR from d, repeating on one exhalation: ddd, ddd, s subsequent more forced pronunciation of the latter. Alternating is also used pronunciation of soundst and d in combination td, td or tdd, tdd at a fast pace, rhythmically. They are articulated with a slightly open mouth and when the tongue is closed not with the incisors, but with the gums of the upper incisors or alveoli. When repeatedly pronouncing a series of sounds d to t the child is asked to blow strongly on the tip of the tongue, and at this moment a vibration occurs.

However, this approach is not always successful. With posterior articulation R or its velar (velar) articulation, the appearance of a two-focal vibration is possible: back and new, front. The simultaneous combination of two types of vibration creates a rough noise, and the child refuses to accept such a sound. In addition, if the forward vibration is reached, the sound often turns out to be unnecessarily long (rolling) and noisy.

stagingR in two stages. At the first stage, a fricative is put R no vibration from sound and when it is drawn out without rounding the lips and moving the front edge of the tongue somewhat forward, towards the gums of the upper teeth or alveoli. In this case, the sound is pronounced with a significant air pressure (as when pronouncing a dull sound) and a minimal gap between the front edge of the tongue and gums.

The resulting fricative sound is fixed in syllables. It is possible, without fixing the sound in syllables, to proceed to the second stage of production: with mechanical assistance, using a ball probe. It is introduced under the tongue and, touching the lower surface of the anterior part of the tongue, the rapid movements of the probe to the right and left cause vibrations of the tongue, its front edges alternately close and open with the alveoli. These movements can also be carried out with an ordinary flat spatula (wooden or plastic) or probe No. 1 (Fig. 8). A child can do home workouts with a teaspoon handle or a clean index finger. During training, the exhaled jet should be strong.

The described technique is used in cases where the hissing sounds of the child are not disturbed.

This approach leads to positive results. However, its shortcomings are that the sound turns out to be rolling, is pronounced in isolation, and the child hardly masters the transition from it to sound combinations with vowels.

The most effective is the reception of setting R from a syllable combination behind with a slightly lengthened pronunciation of the first sound from the syllable: zzza. In the course of repeated repetition of syllables, the child, according to the instructions of the speech therapist, moves the front of the tongue up and forward to the alveoli until the acoustic effect of the fricative is obtained. R combined with the vowel a. After that, a probe is inserted, with its help, rapid movements are carried out from left to right and from right to left. At the time of the vibration, a fairly clear sound is heard R, normal length, without excessive roll. With this method of setting the sound, no special introduction of sound in combination with a vowel is required, since a syllable is immediately obtained. In subsequent work, it is important to train in evoking syllables. ra, ru, ry.

When setting soft R the same technique is applied, but with the help of a syllable zi, and later ze, ze, ze, ze.

Usually for hard and soft sound disorders R first a hard sound is put, and then a soft sound, but this order is not rigid, it can be arbitrarily changed; it is not recommended only to conduct their simultaneous setting in order to avoid displacement.

2. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sounds l and l(distortion- lambdacism, replacements- paralambdacism).

Organs of articulation. At l the lips are neutral and take the position of the next vowel. The distance between the upper and lower incisors is 2-4 mm. The tip of the tongue is raised and pressed against the base of the upper incisors (but may also occupy a lower position). The anterior middle part of the back of the tongue is lowered, the root part is raised towards the soft palate and pulled back, a spoon-shaped depression forms in the middle. The lateral edges of the tongue are lowered, an exhaled stream of air passes through them, weak, as when pronouncing all voiced consonants. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds vibrate to produce voice.

Soft articulation l differs from a solid one in that the lips, when pronounced, are somewhat pulled to the side.

Rice. 2. Articulation of sounds l, l.

ny (which is typical of soft consonants). The anteromedial part of the dorsum of the tongue rises towards the hard palate and moves forward somewhat; the posterior part of the dorsum of the tongue, together with the root, is significantly advanced and lowered (Fig. 2).

Among the violations l sound distortion is common, in which a two-lipped sonorant sound is pronounced, like a short y, found in some dialects, or the sound w, peculiar to the phonetic system in English. More numerous are cases of paralambdacism in the form of substitutions for its short vowel s, fricative G(as in southern Russian dialects), soft and semi-soft l, j(yot), occasionally there is a replacement by sound R and some others.

Soft l very rarely violated: there is a semi-soft pronunciation or replacement with the sound / (iot).

Sound staging techniques. The child is invited to slightly open his mouth and pronounce the combination ya. At the same time, s is pronounced briefly, with tension of the organs of articulation (as if on a firm attack of the voice). A sample of pronunciation is shown by a speech therapist. As soon as the child learns the desired pronunciation, the speech therapist asks him to pronounce this combination again, but with the tongue clamped between the teeth. At this moment you can clearly hear the combination la. When performing the task, the speech therapist ensures that the tip of the child's tongue remains between the teeth.

You can also use another approach. Using soft as the base sound l, ask the child to repeat the syllable several times la, then insert the probe No. 4 (Fig. 8) so that it is between the hard palate and the middle part of the back of the tongue; press the probe on the tongue down - to the right or left, and ask the child to say the combination several times la. At the moment of pronunciation, adjust the movement of the probe until an acoustic effect of a solid sound is obtained. l. The main difficulty in staging sound l lies in the fact that, pronouncing the sound correctly, the child continues to hear his former sound. Therefore, it is necessary to attract the child's auditory attention to the sound that is obtained at the time of its production. The sound l can be obtained by auditory imitation, if at the preparatory stage the child has learned to recognize it and distinguish the correct sound from the wrong one.

3. Disadvantages of pronunciation of soundswith - s, s - h, c (distortion- sigmatism, replacements- parasigmatism).

The structure of the organs of articulation in the pronunciation of sounds s, s, s, s. When making a sound with lips slightly stretched into a smile, front teeth are visible. Before labialized vowels, the lips are rounded, the teeth are brought together to a distance of 1-2 mm. The tip of the tongue rests on the lower incisors, the front of the back of the tongue is curved. Its lateral edges are pressed against the molars. With this way, a narrow passage (a round gap) is formed between the tip of the tongue and the front upper teeth. A groove forms along the tongue along its midline. A strong stream of exhaled air, passing through this gap, causes a whistling noise. The narrower the gap, the higher the noise, the wider the gap - the lower the noise, turning into a “lisping” (the sound is pronounced with a “whisper”). The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nasal cavity; the vocal folds are open and do not produce a voice.

When pronouncing soft with lips stretch more than with c, and tense. The anterior middle part of the back rises higher towards the hard palate and moves forward somewhat towards the alveoli, as a result of which it narrows even more, and the noise becomes higher (Fig. 3).

When articulating z and z, in addition to the paired voiceless ones, a voice is added and the pressure of the air stream weakens.

The structure of the organs of articulation and when pronouncing a sound c. The lips are neutral and take the position of the next vowel. The distance between the teeth is 1-2 mm. The sound is characterized by complex lingual articulation: it begins with a stop element (as in t), while the tip of the tongue is lowered and touches

Rice. 3. Articulation of sounds

s, s; z, z.

Rice. 4. Articulation of sound q ___moment of bow; __.__. -slit

lower teeth. The front part of the back of the tongue rises to the upper teeth or alveoli, with which it makes a bow. Its lateral edges are pressed against the molars; the sound ends with a slotted element (as with c), which sounds very briefly. The boundary between explosive and slotted elements is not caught either by ear or by articulation, since they are merged together. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose,

The main types of sigmatism. Interdental sigmatism is the most common in this group of disorders. characteristic of the sound with the whistle is missing. Instead, a lower and weaker noise is heard, due to the position of the tongue inserted between the teeth: the round gap is replaced by a flat one. The same disadvantage extends to the double voiced h and affricate c.

Labio-tooth sigmatism. With it, in addition to the tongue, the lower lip is involved in the formation of the gap, which approaches the upper incisors (as in the formation of a sound f), so the acoustic effect when distorted with close to sound f. A similar defect is observed when pronouncing the rest of the whistlers.

Lateral sigma. The exhaled stream of air does not pass along the midline of the tongue, but through the lateral gap, one-sided or two-sided, so the lateral edges of the tongue do not adjoin the molars. The tip of the tongue and the anterior part of the back form a bond with the incisors and alveoli. With this articulation, instead of with noise is heard. The same noise, only voiced by voice, is heard when pronouncing h. With lateral articulation can be pronounced and c. The defect also extends to the corresponding paired soft whistling sounds. Tooth parasigmatism. The tongue acquires an anterior stop articulation instead of a fricative one, a sound like an explosive is heard then or, when called, - d. At the sound c its articulation is simplified, and it becomes a singleton, pronounced as with or something.

Hissing parasigmatism. The tongue takes on articulation characteristic of sh, or articulation of a softened hissing sound, reminiscent of a shortened sch.

Techniques for making whistling sounds.

The staging usually begins with a dull hard with.

With labial-tooth sigmatism, it is necessary to remove the labial articulation. This is achieved by demonstrating the correct posture of the lips when articulating this sound, or with mechanical assistance (with a spatula or finger, the lower lip is removed from the teeth). In other cases, the child is asked to smile, pull back a few corners of the mouth so that the teeth are visible, and blow on the tip of the tongue to produce a whistling noise typical of s. You can use mechanical assistance. The child pronounces a syllable repeatedly ta, the speech therapist inserts probe No. 2 (Fig. 8) between the alveoli and the tip (as well as the anterior part of the back of the tongue) and slightly presses it down. A round gap is formed, passing through which the exhaled air stream produces a whistling noise. By controlling the probe, the speech therapist can change the size of the gap until the desired acoustic effect is obtained.

With interdental sigmatism, you can use the above technique. To avoid associations with a disturbed whistling sound, you need to pronounce the syllable sa with clenched teeth at the beginning of its pronunciation, or slightly lengthen the pronunciation of the consonant, and on the vowel a lower the jaw. Particular attention is paid to visual and auditory control.

With lateral sigmatism, special preparatory work is necessary to activate the muscles of the lateral edges of the tongue, which, as a result of the exercises, can rise to close contact with the lateral teeth.

To obtain a clear pronunciation, a two-stage method of staging this sound is used: an interdental pronunciation is called to get rid of the squelching noise, and then the tongue is transferred to the tooth position.

Sound c It is set from the sound of to with the lowered tip of the tongue to the lower incisors and the front part of the back of the tongue pressed against the upper incisors. The child is asked to make a sound then with a strong exhalation. At the same time, as if sequentially pronounce this and that. The whistling sound element turns out to be extended. To get a continuous sound with a short whistling element, the child is asked to pronounce the reverse syllable with the vowel a. When pronouncing, it sounds like a combination ats. Then you need to bring the front of the back of the tongue closer to the teeth (until it touches simultaneously with the upper and lower incisors) and again pronounce the combination ats s strong exhalation at the moment of transition from a to ts. In cases where it is difficult for a child to keep the tip of the tongue at the lower incisors, mechanical assistance is used. With a spatula or probe No. 2 (Fig. 8), the speech therapist holds the tip of the tongue at the lower incisors or places the probe between the front of the back of the tongue and the teeth and asks the child to pronounce a syllable with a strong exhalation that. At the moment the child pronounces the explosive element of the syllable, the speech therapist slightly presses the tongue. A fricative noise is heard, joining without interval to the plosive noise, resulting in a continuous sound c.

In those cases where all whistling sounds are defective, the production usually begins with a deaf hard with. In the future, it becomes the base for staging other whistling, as well as hissing. In some cases, with disturbed fricative whistling sounds c in children it is pronounced without distortion. In such situations, you can call the sound from the sound c. The speech therapist asks the child to pronounce c, heard extended s: ssss. Then the speech therapist asks to pronounce this element without closing the tongue with the teeth. The condition that facilitates articulation is the position c at the beginning of an open syllable, for example ca.

4. Disadvantages of pronunciation of hissing soundssh, w , u, h in some cases, similar to the shortcomings of whistling: interdental, buccal, lateral pronunciation. In addition, there are defects inherent in the pronunciation of only hissing sounds.

Organs of articulation. When making a sound w lips are extended forward and rounded (before a - rounding is minimal, before s (s) there may or may not be rounding). The distance between the teeth is greater than with whistling - 4-5 mm. The tip of the tongue is raised towards the beginning of the hard palate or the alveoli, the middle part of the back of the tongue bends, and the back part rises towards the soft palate and is drawn to the wall of the pharynx. The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars; the palatine curtain is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The vocal folds are open; a strong expiratory stream of air passes through two slits: between the back of the tongue and the soft palate, and also between the tip of the tongue and the hard palate. This produces a complex noise, lower than when pronouncing whistling, resembling a hiss.

When forming a voiced and the same articulation as when making a sound sh; it is supplemented by the work of closed and oscillating vocal folds that produce the voice. The exhaled air stream is somewhat weaker and the gap between the tip of the tongue and the hard palate is smaller than when w(Fig. 5).

The main types of sound disordersw and w. Among the violations of these sounds, several types of distorted pronunciation are noted.

"cheek" pronunciation w and and. The tongue does not take part in articulation, the exhaled stream of air encounters an obstacle not between the tongue and lips, but between the teeth that are close (sometimes compressed) to each other and the corners of the mouth pressed against them from the sides. A "dull" noise is formed, and when pronouncing a voiced and a voice is added to the noise; pronunciation of a sound is accompanied by swelling of the cheeks.

"Lower" pronunciation w and w. The gap is formed not by the convergence of the tip of the tongue with the hard palate, but by the front of its back. With this articulation, the hissing ones acquire a soft shade, resembling the sound sch, pronounced without its inherent longitude. In some cases, this articulation can produce a hard sound.

Posterior pronunciation w to w. The gap is formed by the convergence of the back of the back of the tongue with the hard palate. In this case, the noise that resembles the noise at the sound x or voiced fricative g, as in the southern Russian regions.

Except in cases of garbled pronunciation w and and, various replacements of hissing sounds with other sounds are observed. Among them, the most frequent are the replacements of hissing whistling. The replacement of hissing by whistling is not always complete, since very often there are acoustic differences between a whistling substitute and a normalized sound with.

Techniques for setting sounds w and and. First, the sound sh is put, and then and.

Sound staging w carried out in a number of ways.

Rice. 5. Articulation of sounds w, w, w.---------w, w; - - - . -sch.

sa and during its pronunciation gradually (smoothly) raises the tip of the tongue towards the alveoli. As the tongue rises, the nature of the noise of the consonant changes. At the moment of the appearance of hissing noise corresponding to the acoustic effect of the normalized sh, the speech therapist fixes the child's attention with the help of a mirror in this position. Then he asks to blow strongly on the tip of the tongue, adding a sound to the exhalation a(resulting in the syllable sha). Child pronounces a syllable sa with the upper position of the tongue and carefully listens to what kind of sound it produces.

The child pronounces a syllable several times sa, and the speech therapist inserts probe No. 5 under the tongue (Fig. 8). With its help, it moves the tip of the tongue to the upper position and regulates the degree of its rise until a normal-sounding tongue appears. sh. The speech therapist fixes the probe in this position, asks the child to pronounce the same syllable again and listen carefully. After several practice in pronunciation sha s using a probe, the speech therapist fixes the child's attention on the position of the tongue and finds out whether he can independently put the tongue in the desired position.

With undisturbed pronunciation R you can put w and and from this sound. Child pronounces a syllable ra and at this moment the speech therapist touches the spatula or probe No. 5 (Fig. 8) to the lower surface of his tongue to slow down the vibration. When whispering ra heard sha, and with loud Ms.

Sound and is usually set from the sound w turning on the voice when pronouncing it, but it can also be delivered from the sound h, How w from with.

Disadvantages of sound pronunciationsch. Sound sch in Russian it is pronounced as a long soft fricative hissing, which is characterized by the following way of articulation organs: lips, as in sh, extended forward and rounded, the tip of the tongue is raised to the level of the upper teeth (lower than with sh). The front part of the back of the tongue bends somewhat, the middle part rises to the hard palate, the back part is lowered and moved forward; the palatine curtain is raised, the vocal folds are open. A strong stream of exhaled air passes through two gaps: between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate and between the tip of the tongue and the front teeth or alveoli. A complex noise is generated, higher than with w(Fig. 5).

Among deficiencies in pronunciationsch there is a shortened pronunciation (the duration of such a sound is the same as with w), replacing with a soft whistling sound with, as well as pronunciation sch with an affricative element in the final phase, as a combination shh("shchuka" instead of pike).

To set up sound sch you can use sound with. The child pronounces the syllable several times si or sa s extended whistling element: si, si... Then the speech therapist inserts a spatula or probe under the tongue and at the moment of pronouncing the syllables slightly raises it, pushing it back a little. The same acoustic effect can be obtained without raising the tongue, but only slightly pushing it back with a touch of a spatula.

If the sound h is pronounced correctly, then it is easy to get a sound from it sch, extending the final sound h fricative element. A long sound is heard sch, which is further easily separated from the explosive element. The sound is immediately introduced into syllables and then into words.

Disadvantages of pronunciation of the sound h. When pronouncing the sound h, the lips, as with all hissing sounds, are elongated and rounded. The distance between the teeth is 1-2 mm. The sound has a complex lingual articulation: it begins with a stop element (as with the sound t) - the tip of the tongue is lowered and touches the lower incisors. The front part of the back of the tongue is pressed against the upper incisors or alveoli. Its middle part is curved towards the hard palate. The whole language is somewhat moving forward. The sound ends with a slotted element (as in sch), which is short. The boundary between the explosive and slotted (fricative) elements is not caught either by ear or by articulation, since the elements are merged together. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose, the vocal folds are open, the sound is muffled (Fig. 6).

Among the shortcomings of the pronunciation of the sound h, in addition to those that are common to all sibilants, one should note the replacement of h with a soft whistling affricate c, not peculiar to the phonetic system of the Russian literary language, as well as t or sh.

Rice. 6 Articulation of sound h ---------moment of bow; _ . _ . _gap

Sound h can be set from soft t pronounced in direct syllable (tee) or reverse (am/). The child pronounces one of these syllables several times with a slight increase in expiration on the consonant element. At the moment of pronunciation, the speech therapist, using a spatula or probe No. 5 (Fig. 8), slightly pushes back the tip of the tongue (as for articulation sch). The same acoustic effect can be obtained by inserting the probe under the tongue. At the moment of pronunciation, the speech therapist slightly raises the tongue and at the same time pushes it back a little. The sound h is easier to call in reverse syllables.

In some cases, violations of all whistling and hissing sounds are observed. Cases have been noted when all these sounds are realized in only one articulatory variant - a softened hissing sound. Meeting with such cases, the speech therapist analyzes the defect in order to properly organize the speech therapy impact. If the violation is qualified as dyslalia, it is necessary to determine the sequence in the production of sounds. It is customary to first put whistling sounds (primarily deaf), and on their basis - voiced ones. Hissing sounds are put after the whistling ones: first - hard, then - soft. When staging hissing, the sequence of sounds being worked out is freer. It is determined by a speech therapist based on the characteristics of the manifestation of the defect.

5. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sound j (yot)(yotocism).

Organs of articulation. The lips are somewhat stretched, but less than with and. The distance between the incisors is 1-2 mm. The tip of the tongue lies at the lower incisors. The middle part of the back of the tongue is strongly raised to the hard palate. Its back part and root are advanced forward. The edges rest against the upper lateral teeth. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nasal cavity. The vocal folds vibrate and form the voice. Depending on the phonetic position of the sound, it can be articulated with a narrower or wider gap. The exhaled air stream is weak.

Sound j(iot) is broken less frequently than the sounds described above. Its defective pronunciation most often comes down to being replaced by soft l(in its lower or upper articulation).

You can correct the sound by relying on the vowel and: the child pronounces the combination several times ia or aia. The exhalation is somewhat intensified at the moment of pronouncing and, and immediately without interruption, a is pronounced. After such pronunciation has been mastered, the speech therapist gives an installation for a shorter pronunciation of c. In addition to the combination ia, useful to pronounce ai, oi etc. As a result, the child develops their diphthongoid pronunciation

Another example of setting the sound / (yot) is setting it from a soft h s mechanical help. Child pronounces a syllable for (zya), repeating it several times.

During pronunciation, the speech therapist presses the front of the tongue with a spatula and pushes it back a little until the desired sound is obtained.

6. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sounds k,g, x, k, g, x (capacism, gamacism, chitism).

Organs of articulation. When pronouncing the sound k, the lips are neutral and take the position of the next vowel. The distance between the upper and lower incisors is up to 5 mm. The tip of the tongue is lowered and touches the lower incisors, the front and middle parts of the back of the tongue are lowered, the back part closes with the palate. The place of the junction of the tongue with the palate changes under different phonetic conditions: ka it appears on the border of the hard and soft palate, when combined with labialized vowels about and at the bow is lower (with a soft palate). The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the posterior upper teeth. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nasal cavity. The vocal folds are open. The exhaled jet explodes the bond between the tongue and the palate, resulting in a characteristic noise.

When articulating sound X unlike k, the back of the back of the tongue does not completely close with the palate: a gap is created along the midline of the tongue, passing through which the exhaled air makes noise.

When pronouncing soft k, g, x the tongue moves forward and makes a connection with the palate (and for X- gap). The middle part of the back of the tongue approaches the hard palate. Front (as with hard k, g, x) omitted. The tip of the tongue is somewhat closer to the lower teeth, but does not touch them. The lips stretch somewhat and open the teeth (Fig. 7).

With cappacism and gammasism, the following disorders are observed: the sound is formed by the closing of the vocal folds,

which sharply diverge at the moment of passage of an air jet of high pressure through them. Noisy air bursts through the glottis. Instead of k, a guttural click is heard. When pronouncing a voiced voice, a voice is added to the gloom. With chitism, a faint guttural noise is heard.

Rice.7. Articulation of sounds k, k; g, g; x, x.

There are cases of replacing the back lingual plosives k and r with the front lingual plosives m and d, which are called Paracappacism and Parathammacism. Occasionally there is a kind of paracapacism, when the sound k is replaced X. For gamacism, substitution by a backlingual or pharyngeal fricative G denoted in transcription by the Greek letter (gamma).

Violations of the soft g, k, x similar to violations of hard g, k, x, but in some cases there is a lateral pronunciation of k and g.

Techniques for correcting these sounds are reduced to setting back plosives from front lingual plosives, and back lingual fricatives from front lingual fricatives. Soft sounds are placed from soft ones, and hard ones - from hard ones. Sounds are set with mechanical help. The child pronounces the syllable several times ta, at the moment of pronunciation, the speech therapist gradually pushes the tongue back with a spatula by pressing on the front of the back of the tongue. As the tongue moves inward, the first syllable is heard you, after kya, and after him ka. Sound is also set G from the syllable Yes, but it can also be obtained by voicing k. Sound X set from sound with in a similar way: first heard Xia, after him hya and finally Ha.

The described techniques for setting sounds are used for both functional and mechanical dyslalia. Setting sounds with mechanical dyslalia should be preceded by more preparatory work than with functional dyslalia. In the process of it, much attention is paid to "pronunciation tests" that allow you to

Rice. nine.Scheme of the relationship of sounds during their production in children with dyslalia

to clarify in which of the structures of the organs of articulation it is possible to obtain an acoustic effect that is closest to the normalized sound.

In a different phonetic environment, the same phoneme is realized in different articulatory variants, so the most frequent variants of combinations must be worked out.

A condition conducive to the development of normalized sounds and facilitating the child's process of mastering the skills and abilities of the sound design of speech is an adequately chosen way of setting the sound. The most justified is the one that takes into account the articulatory proximity of sounds and the natural, inherent in speech ways of its implementation.

Relying on one or another sound as a basic one, a speech therapist, when staging it, must proceed from the fact that only a syllable is the minimum unit in which it is realized. Therefore, one can talk about the production of a sound only if it appears as part of a syllable. All attempts to put sounds on the basis of imitation of ambient noises (the hiss of a goose, the noise of a train, the cod of a machine gun, and many others) to work on pronunciation with dyslalia can only be of auxiliary importance.

In the proposed scheme (Fig. 9), the sounds that are disturbed during dyslalia are highlighted. Arrows from basic sounds are summed up to each of them. In some cases, the arrows turn out to be bidirectional, which means that there are various options approach to correction, depending on which of the sounds is formed. The diagram shows that the same sound can be obtained in different ways. The order of setting sounds is determined by the degree of their acoustic contrast. The sounds are grouped under a phonemic feature essential to the work.

This scheme reflects the ideas of F. A. Pay, A. G. Ippolitova.

Conclusions and problems

In Russian speech therapy, the concept of dyslalia has developed as a type of sound pronunciation disorder that is not caused by organic disorders of the central order.

In the concept of dyslalia, functionally conditioned pronunciation disorders and organically conditioned disorders (with anatomical anomalies of the organs of articulation) are divided into independent forms of dyslalia. From the composition of dyslalia, rhinolalia is separated into a separate form. For modern speech therapy, the search for methodically justified ways to develop the correct sound pronunciation continues to be relevant.

Control questions and tasks

1. Compare the definitions of dyslalia in the works of M. E. Khvattsev, O. V. Pravdina, O. A. Tokareva, K. P. Becker and M. Sovak. Determine their similarities and differences.

2. Name the main forms of dyslalia, indicate the criteria for their selection.

3. Name the main types of violations of individual sounds.

4. Describe the articulation of the sound (optional).

5. Describe defects in sound pronunciation (optional).

6. When visiting a special institution, check the state of sound pronunciation in children, determine the identified violations.

7. Being present at a speech therapy lesson, note the techniques and aids used to eliminate defects in sound pronunciation.

Literature

1. Matusevich M. I. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. - M., 1976.

2. Panov M. V. Russian phonetics. -M., 1967.

3. Pravdiva O. V. Speech therapy. - 2nd ed. - M., 1973.

4. Pay F.F. Techniques for correcting phoneme pronunciation deficiencies // Fundamentals of the theory and practice of speech therapy. - M., 1968.

5. Speech disorders in children and adolescents / Ed. S.S. Lyapidevsky. - M., 1969.

6. Fomicheva M.F. Teaching correct pronunciation. - M., 1971.

7. Khvattsev M. E. Speech therapy. - M., 1959.

8. Reader on speech therapy / Ed. L.S. Volkova, V.I. Seliverstov. - M., 1997. - Part I. - S. 8-119.

Speech therapy: Textbook for students defectol. fak. ped. universities / Ed. L.S. Volkova, S.N. Shakhovskaya. -- M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 1998. - 680 p.

Questions of correct literary pronunciation are studied by a special linguistic discipline - orthoepy(from Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepic rules and recommendations have always been in the focus of attention of Russian philologists, as well as representatives of those professions whose activities are directly related to public speaking to an audience: statesmen and public figures, lecturers, announcers, commentators, journalists, artists, translators, teachers of Russian and foreign languages, preachers, lawyers. But in recent years, interest in the problems of the culture of oral speech has noticeably increased among the most diverse strata of society. This is facilitated by socio-economic changes in our country, the democratization of all aspects of life. The practice of broadcasting parliamentary debates and hearings, live speeches has become widespread: statesmen, leaders of parties and movements, political observers, specialists in various fields of science and culture.

Possession of the norms of literary pronunciation, the ability to expressively and correctly formulate a sounding speech is gradually recognized by many as an urgent social necessity.

Historically, the development and formation of the rules of Russian orthoepy has developed in such a way that the literary pronunciation is based on the Moscow pronunciation, on which some variants of the St. Petersburg pronunciation were subsequently “layered”.

Departure from the norms and recommendations of Russian literary pronunciation is regarded as a sign of insufficient speech and general culture, which reduces the authority of the speaker and scatters the attention of listeners. Regional features of pronunciation, incorrectly placed stress, “reduced” colloquial and everyday intonation, and ill-conceived pausing distract from the correct, adequate perception of public speaking.

Erroneous pronunciation through radio and television is “replicated” to a huge audience, voluntarily or involuntarily assimilated and consolidated, thereby blurring the idea of ​​​​correctness and purity of speech that is necessary for every cultured person. In addition, there are certain negative socio-psychological consequences of non-normative pronunciation, which tends to spread (especially in conditions of round-the-clock broadcasting). Since in the bulk the listener first of all pays attention to the content side of the information, the sound side of speech is not controlled by him, but is fixed at the subconscious level. In these cases, everything that contradicts the established tradition of shaping Russian sounding speech: violation of the intonation pattern of the phrase and the text as a whole, unjustified logical stress, pauses that do not correspond to the natural “flow” of the speech, evoke an intuitive feeling of protest in the listener, create a feeling of anxiety, psychological discomfort.

Work on one's own pronunciation, on improving the pronunciation culture requires a person to have certain knowledge in the field of orthoepy. Since pronunciation is largely an automated side of speech, a person “hears” himself worse than others, controls his pronunciation insufficiently or does not control it at all, is uncritical in assessing his own pronunciation, and painfully perceives comments in this area. The rules and recommendations on orthoepy, reflected in manuals, dictionaries and reference books, seem to him to be overly categorical, different from the usual speech practice, and common spelling errors, on the contrary, are very harmless.

Therefore, in order to successfully master the orthoepic norm or deepen knowledge in Russian literary pronunciation, it is necessary from the point of view of methodological recommendations:

¦ learn the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation;

learn to listen to your speech and the speech of others;

¦ listen and study exemplary literary pronunciation, which is owned by radio and television announcers, masters of the artistic word;

¦ consciously compare your pronunciation with exemplary, analyze your mistakes and shortcomings;

¦ correct them by constant speech training in preparation for public speaking.

The study of the rules and recommendations of literary pronunciation should begin with the distinction and awareness of the two main styles of pronunciation: complete recommended for public speaking, and incomplete(colloquial colloquial), which is common in everyday communication. The full style is characterized primarily by the observance of the basic requirements of the orthoepic norm, clarity and distinctness of pronunciation, the correct placement of verbal and logical stress, moderate tempo, correct pausing, neutral intonation pattern of the phrase and speech as a whole. With an incomplete pronunciation style, there is an excessive reduction in vowels, falling out of consonants, indistinct pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, excessive emphasis on words (including official ones), inconsistent speech tempo, and unwanted pauses. If in everyday speech these features of pronunciation are acceptable, then in public speaking they must be avoided.

§ 235. Pronunciation of vowels

The main feature of Russian literary pronunciation in the field of vowels is their different sound in stressed and unstressed syllables with the same spelling. In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo reduction. There are two types of reduction - quantitative(when the longitude and intensity of the sound decrease) and quality(when the sound itself changes in an unstressed position). The vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable are subjected to less reduction, the greater - in all other syllables. Vowels [a], [o], [e] undergo both quantitative and qualitative reduction in unstressed syllables; vowels [and], [s], [y] do not change their quality in unstressed syllables, but partially lose their duration.

1. Vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable:

a) after solid consonants in place about and a [a]: v[a] yes?, n[a] ha?, M[a]squa?, s[a]dy?, s[a]bo?r ; after hard sizzling and and w on the spot a and about also pronounced weakened sound [a]: w[a]ra?, w[a]nglör, sh[a]gi?, w[a]fer .

Note 1. After hard sizzling and, w and after c soft consonants are preceded by a sound like [s] with an overtone [e] , denoted conditionally [s uh ] : w[s uh ] lie, unfortunately [s uh ] le? niyu, f [s uh ]ke?t , in the forms plural words horse: losh[s uh ]de?th, losh[s uh ]dya?m etc. ... in the forms of indirect cases of numerals on - twenty: twenty[s] uh ]ty?, thirty[s] uh ]ty? etc.; in rare cases sound [s uh ] pronounced on the spot a in position before hard consonants: hw[s uh ]Noah. w[s uh ]sm?n .

Note 2. Unstressed [about] pronounced in conjunctions but and what , and is also allowed in some foreign words, for example: b[o]a?, b[o]mo?nd. rococo?. J[o]re?c .

Note 3. Preservation about in unstressed syllables is a feature of regional pronunciation, so the pronunciation M[o]squa?, p[o]ku?pka, p[o]e?dem, v[o]zi?t. railway station does not correspond to the norm;

b) after hard hissing w, w and c on the spot e a reduced sound like [s] with an overtone [e] , denoted conditionally [s uh ]: w[s uh ]on?, w[s uh ]pt?t, q[s uh ]lu?y ;

c) after soft consonants in place of letters I and e , as well as after soft hissing h and sch on the spot a a weakened sound is pronounced [and] with an overtone [e] , denoted conditionally [and uh ] : m[i uh ]sno?th, R[and uh ]for?n, m[and uh ]sti?, h[i uh ]sy?, sch[and uh ]di?t , as well as in the plural forms of the word area: area uh ]de?th, square[and uh ]dya?m etc.;

d) on the spot I and e a sound is pronounced at the beginning of a word [and] with an overtone [e] , denoted [and uh ] combined with the previous [yi]: [yi uh ]Zda?, [yi uh ]nta?r, [yi uh ]egg?.

Note. Preservation [a] in an unstressed syllable after soft consonants is a feature of the regional pronunciation, so the pronunciation [w’a] for? be, bi? on, h[a] sy?, [ya] egg?, [ya] vi? does not correspond to the norm.

2. Vowels in other unstressed syllables:

a) at the absolute beginning of a word in place of letters a and about always pronounced attenuated sound [a]: [a] rbu? z: [a] kno ?, [a] car? l, [a] declination;

b) after solid consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st pre-stressed, in place a and about a reduced sound is pronounced, average in sound between [a] and [s] [b]: g[b] lova?, k[b] rand? sh, i? bl [b] k [b] ;

c) after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st pre-stressed, in place and I and e pronounced reduced, middle in sound between [and] and [e] , short in duration, denoted conditionally [b]: [p’b] tacho? k, [l’b] rubbish? b, you? [n’b] su, h[b] catch? k .

3. Vowel and at the beginning of the root after a prefix or preposition, ending in solid consonants is pronounced like [s] : from the institute - and[zy]institute , with Igor - [sy] grief ; save in this position [and] and the softening of the consonant before it is a regional feature of pronunciation and does not correspond to the norm.

4. Stressed vowels in place e and yo . In the pronunciation of a number of words, difficulties arise due to the indistinguishability of letters in the printed text. e and yo , since only the letter is used to designate them e (except for educational literature for junior schoolchildren and foreign students). This situation leads to a distortion of not only the graphic, but also the phonetic appearance of the word, and is the cause of frequent pronunciation errors. Therefore, it is recommended to remember two rows of words:

a) with a letter e , in the place of which sounds [e]: scam, spineless, bluff, being, sleet, firebrand, grenadier, plump, life, alien, religious procession (but Godfather ), fishing line, non-existence, perplexed, invaluable, guardianship, sedentary (settlement), successor, successor, shadowing, modern, yoke, barley and etc.;

b) with a letter yo , in the place of which, sounds [about]: hopeless, buckets, engraver, bile (admissible bile ), bilious (admissible bilious ), mockery, traveling salesman, priest (but priest ), maneuvers, mercenary, convicted, brought in, translated, brought, sturgeon, fable, laid down, brought, brought, scabrous, scrupulous, belted, sweep, tyosha, wool (coarse-haired), lye and etc.

In some pairs of words, a different meaning is accompanied by a different sound of the stressed vowel. [about] or [e]: expired (term) - expired (blooded), announced (shouts like an announced) - announced (decree), perfect (singing) - perfect (opening).

§ 236. Pronunciation of certain consonants

1. Consonant [G] in the literary pronunciation of an explosive, instant sound, when stunned, it is pronounced as [to]: sleep [to], take [to] . Pronouncing in his place "Ukrainian" G , conventionally denoted [h] , does not correspond to the norm: [h] uh? be, sapo [h] and? . The exception is the word God , at the end of which sounds [X] .

2. Instead of h in words of course, boring, scrambled eggs, fiddling, birdhouse, bachelorette party, laundry, rag, rag-picker , in female patronymics ending in - ichna (Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, Ilyinichna etc.), as well as in the words what to, nothing pronounced [w] .

3. In words man, defector in place of combination zhch , in the form of the comparative degree of adverbs tougher, tougher (and biting ) in place stch , as well as in place of combinations zch and mid pronounced [n]: loader, customer, carver, subscriber, sandstone, happy, happiness, account, electronic account, counter, cost accounting, count and etc.

4. With the accumulation of several consonants in some combinations, one of them is not pronounced:

a) combined stn not pronounced [t]: teaching? [s'n'] ik, ve? [s'] nick, what? i?ro[sn]th ;

b) combined zdn not pronounced [d]: by? [zn] o, right? [zn] ik, nae? [zn] ik , but in the word abyss it is recommended to leave a weak sound [e] ;

c) combined stl not pronounced [t]: happy [s’l ’] and? ; in words bony and send [t] is preserved;

d) combined stl not pronounced [t] ; this produces a double consonant [ss]: maximum? [ss] cue, turi? [ss] cue, race? [ss] cue .

5. In some words, with the accumulation of consonants stk, zdk, ntk, ndk fall out is not allowed [t]: daughter-in-law, trip, summons, typist, cumbersome, laboratory assistant, student, patient, Irish, Scottish but: cloth shotla[nk]a .

6. Hard consonants before soft consonants can be softened:

a) necessarily softens I n before soft h and with: ne? [n’s ’] ia, prete? [n’z ’] ia, rece? [n’z ’] ia, face? [n’z ’] ia ;

b) in combinations tv, dv may soften t and d: Thursday, Tver, hard [t’v’] and [tv’]; door, two, move [d’v] and [dv’] ;

c) in combinations sv and St. may soften h and with: beast, ring [z'v '] and [sv']; light, candle, witness, saint [s'v] and [sv'] , as well as in the word snake [z'm'] and [zm’] ;

G) n in front of soft t and d softens: ba[n't']ik, wi[n't']ik, zo[n't']ik, ve[n't']il, a[n't']ichny, ko[n't '] text, remo[n't'] ban, b[n'd']it, I[n'd']ia, style[n'd']ia, zo[n'd']irovat, and [n'd']ivid, ka[n'd']idat, blo[n'd']in.

§ 237. Pronunciation of certain grammatical forms

Some grammatical forms of verbs, nouns, adjectives are characterized by special rules for pronouncing sounds in suffixes and endings.

1. In verbs with a particle- Xia in the indefinite form and in the third person singular and plural at the junction of the ending and the particle is pronounced [ts]: meet, meet - meet [tts], mark, mark - note [tch], mark - note? [tch], say goodbye - goodbye? [tch].

In the form of the imperative at the place of combination - be two soft sounds [t's']: mark - mark? [t's'], meet - the wind? [t's'] .

2. In the endings of the genitive case of the masculine and neuter forms of adjectives, numerals, pronouns - wow /-him on the spot G pronounced [c]: big house (lake) - big? [b], blue flag (sea) - si? not [b] . The same rule applies to words today - se [in] o? days, total - total [in] o? .

Note. Surnames ending in - ago (Shembinago, Zhivago ), the sound is pronounced [G] .

3. Graphic abbreviations, occurring in the text, for example, surname initials , as well as abbreviations like l (liter), m (meter), kg (kilogram), ha (hectare), p / box (“letter box”), etc. (etc.), s (page) and etc. in reading "decipher", i.e., "unfold" into full words. Graphic abbreviations exist only in written speech only for visual perception, and their literal reading is perceived either as a speech error or as irony, appropriate only in special situations.

§ 238. Features of the pronunciation of Russian names and patronymics

The combination of name and patronymic is used in various situations, both in written and oral speech: in official decrees on awards, appointments, in orders, lists, for example, on personnel records, composition of production and training groups, in business and private correspondence, in circulation to the interlocutor, in the representation and naming of third parties.

In an atmosphere of official, business communication between people, especially in the work of a teacher, translator, editor, lawyer, businessman, employee of government or commercial structures, it becomes necessary to address by name and patronymic. Many Russian names and patronymics have pronunciation options that it is desirable to take into account in a particular communication situation. So, when meeting, at the first introduction of a person, a distinct, clear, close to spelling pronunciation is recommended.

In all other cases, incomplete, contracted forms of pronunciation of names and patronymics are acceptable, which have historically developed in the practice of literary oral speech.

1. - uy (Vasily, Anatoly, Arkady, Grigory, Yuri, Eugene, Valery, Gennady ) ending in combinations - evich, - evna preceded by a separator b: Vasil evich, Vasil evna; Grigory evich, Grigory evna . When pronouncing female patronymics, these combinations are clearly preserved: Vasil evna, Anatole evna, Grigory evna etc. In male patronymics, full and contracted options are allowed: Vasya?[l'jb']ich and Vasya[l'ich], Anato?[l'jv']ich and Anato?[l'ich], Grigo?[r'jb']ich and Grigo?[p' ich] etc.

2. Patronymics formed from male names on - her and - ah (Alexey, Andrey, Korney, Matvey, Sergey, Nikolay ) end in combinations - eevich, - eevna, - aevich, - aevna: Alekseevich, Alekseevna, Nikolaevich, Nikolaevna . In their pronunciation, the literary norm allows both full and contracted options: Alexeyevich and Alex?[i]h, Alekseyevna and Alek[s’e?]vna; Sergeevich and Serge?[i]h, Sergeevna and Ser[g’e?] vna; Korne?evich and Cornet?[and]h, Korne?evna and Kor[n’e?]vna; Nikolaevich and Nikola?[i]h, Nikolaevna and Nikola?[ext]a etc.

3. Male patronymics ending in an unstressed combination - ovic , can be pronounced both in full and in contracted form: Anto?novich and Anto?n[s]h, Aleksandrovich and Alexa?ndr[s]h , Iva?novich and Willow?n[s]h etc. In female patronymics ending in an unstressed combination - ram , the full pronunciation is recommended: Alexander ram, Boris ram, Kirill ram, Victor ram, Oleg ram etc.

4. If the middle name starts with and (Ivanovich, Ignatievich, Isaevich ), then in pronunciation with a name ending in a solid consonant, but goes into [s]: Pavel Ivanovich - Pavel[s]vanovich, Alexander Isaevich - Alexander[s]saevich .

5. Usually not pronounced ov n and m: Willow? [n:]na, Anto?[n:]a, Efi?[mn]a, Maxi?[mn]a .

6. Not pronounced unstressed - ov in female patronymics from names ending in in: Vyachesla?[ext]a, Stanisla?[ext]a .

§ 239. Pronunciation of borrowed words

Part of the borrowed vocabulary in the Russian language has some orthoepic features, which are fixed by the literary norm.

1. In some words of foreign origin in place of unstressed about pronounced sound [o]: ada? gio, boa?, bomo? nd, bonto? n, cocoa? o, radio, three? o . In addition, there may be stylistic hesitation in high-style text; preservation of unstressed [about] in words that are foreign in origin - one of the means of attracting attention to them, the means of highlighting them. Word pronunciation nocturne, sonnet, poetic, poet, poetry, dossier, veto, creed, foyer and others with unstressed [about] optional. foreign names Maurice Thorez, Chopin, Voltaire, Rodin, Daudet, Baudelaire, Flaubert, Zola, Honoré de Balzac, Sacramento and others also retain unstressed [about] as a variant of literary pronunciation.

In some borrowed words in literary pronunciation, after vowels and at the beginning of a word, the unstressed [e]: duelist, muezzin, poetic, aegis, evolution, exaltation, exoticism, equivalent, eclecticism, economy, screen, expansion, expert, experiment, exhibit, ecstasy, excess, element, elite, embargo, emigrant, emission, emir, energy, enthusiasm , encyclopedia, epigraph, episode, epilogue, epoch, effect, effective and etc.

2. In oral public speech, certain difficulties are caused by the pronunciation of a hard or soft consonant in borrowed words before the letter e , for example, in words pace, swimming pool, museum etc. In most of these cases, a soft consonant is pronounced: academy, pool, beret, beige, brunette, bill, monogram, debut, motto, recitation, declaration, dispatch, incident, compliment, competent, correct, museum, patent, pate, Odessa, tenor, term, plywood, overcoat; word pace pronounced with a firm t .

In other words before e a hard consonant is pronounced: adept, auto-da-fe, business, western, child prodigy, riding breeches, dumbbell, grotesque, neckline, delta, dandy, derby, de facto, de jure, dispensary, identical, boarding school, international, intern, karate, square, cafe, scarf, codeine, code, computer, tuple, cottage, bracket, martin, billionaire, model, modern, morse, hotel, parterre, pathos, polonaise, purse, poetess, resume, rating, reputation, superman other. Some of these words have been known to us for at least a hundred and fifty years, but do not show a tendency to soften the consonant.

In loanwords beginning with a prefix de- , before vowels dez- , as well as in the first part of compound words starting with neo- , with a general tendency to soften, there are fluctuations in the pronunciation of soft and hard d and n , eg: devaluation, de-ideologization, demilitarization, depoliticization, destabilization, deformation, disinformation, deodorant, disorganization, neo-globalism, neo-colonialism, neo-realism, neo-fascism.

Solid pronunciation of consonants before e recommended in foreign proper names: Bella, Bizet, Voltaire: Descartes, Daudet, Jaures, Carmen, Mary, Pasteur, Rodin, Flaubert, Chopin, Apollinaire, Fernandel [de?], Carter, Ionesco, Minelli, Vanessa Redgrave, Stallone and etc.

In loanwords with two (or more) e often one of the consonants is pronounced softly, while the other remains firm before e: strap [rete], genesis [gene], relay [relay], genetics [gene], cafeteria [fete], pince-nez [ne; ne], reputation [re; me], secretary [se; re; te], ethnogenesis [gene] and etc.

In relatively few words of foreign origin, there are fluctuations in the pronunciation of the consonant before e , for example: with the normative pronunciation of a solid consonant before e in words businessman [ne; me], annexation [ne] pronunciation with a soft consonant is acceptable; in words dean, complaint soft pronunciation is the norm, but hard pronunciation is also allowed [de] and [te] ; in a word session variants of hard and soft pronunciation are equal. It is not normative to soften consonants before e in the professional speech of representatives of the technical intelligentsia in words laser, computer , as well as in colloquial pronunciation of words business, sandwich, intensive, interval .

Stylistic fluctuations in the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants before e are also observed in some foreign-language proper names: Berta, The Decameron, Reagan. Major, Kramer, Gregory Peck and etc.

3. Solid [w] pronounced in words parachute, brochure . In a word jury pronounced soft hissing [and'] . Names are pronounced the same way Julien, Jules .

III. FEATURES OF THE RUSSIAN STRESS

§ 240. Russian word stress

Word stress in Russian is characterized by heterogeneity(can be on any syllable and any part of a word: but? lead, science, education, bourgeoisie? etc.) and mobility (in different grammatical forms, the word can move from one syllable to another: head?, head; head; accepted, accepted?; bold, bold? etc.).

Prepositions, conjunctions and particles usually do not have independent stress on themselves and are adjacent to independent parts of speech: beyond the city, haven’t been?, father? . In some cases, the emphasis shifts to the preposition: up the mountain, on? gender, for night . Thus, independent and functional words have one verbal stress, making up a single phonetic word in sound.

Note. A small number of service parts of speech are weakly stressed and do not change the quality of the “stressed” vowel. These are unions but, as if, for sure, then ... then , some prepositions that do not violate the semantic connection with adverbs ( along, opposite, besides, next to, between etc.), particle well .

Compound words and words with prefixes anti-, inter-, near-, counter-, over-, super-, ex- and others may have, in addition to the main, side(or secondary) stress, conventionally denoted by the grave sign ( ‘ ). But among the complex words there are many single-stressed ones: pre-war, independent, car, dormitory etc. Collateral stress usually in order is the first (closer to the beginning of the word), and basic- second (closer to the end of the word): oath th, inter-republic? nsky, su and etc.

The correct choice of the place of stress in the word has great importance in work on the culture of oral speech. The following are examples of the most common mis-emphasis. These can be both individual words and some grammatical forms of words:

1) Common nouns:

agent, agronomy, alphabet? t, apo? krif, apostrophe, are? st, asymmetry? , bravura? rny, rattling, gross? e, gross? m wali? t, faith? giving, supremacy? nstvo, supper, genesis, citizenship, grotesque, ground? e, gave? y-la?ma, hyphen?s, dia?spore, diopter?I, dispensary?r, do?gmat, old?vko, confessor?k, blinds? sk and flint, kitchen, marketing, masterful, messi, mimicry, many hours, garbage chute, intention, real estate, unsleeping(eye), not? netsky, untrodden, unspeakable? (relationship), oil pipeline, newborn, provision, depreciate, facilitate, encourage, educate, one-component, wholesale, inform, recall(for manuscript) review (deputy), rebuff, somewhat, remembering, fir, plateau, repeated, teenage, anticipating, coercing, acquiring, reasoning, sanitary? I, modest, convoking ?in, concentration, means, carpenter, status, statute? t, history, taboo?, customs, customs, bidding? simple, deepen, Ukrainian, reduce, simplify, facsimile, extravaganza, phenomenon(phenomenon), needles? I, cotton? (norm), linguistic (sausage).

In many words, there are fluctuations in the setting of stress: equal options - denim and denim, zai?ndevely and frosty, combiner and combine operator, metallurgy and metallurgy, propolis and propolis, the loop? and the loop, erysipelas and childbirth, rust and rust, sa?zhen and soot?, cottage cheese and cottage cheese, fanza and fanza? ; with normative stress and? vgustovsky admissible augustian , at birch bark admissible birch bark , at shell admissible shell , at wary admissible wary ; with normative stress industry - obsolete industry , at swept away - obsolete quick-witted , at ra?course - obsolete cancer?rs ;

2) Proper names:

Aigi?, E?vno, Aze?f, A?be, Ko?be, Eli?n Peli?n, Zakhode?r, P?res de Cue?lier, Steinbeck, Se?linger, Rua?l A Mundsen, Balmont, Vorontso? va-Da? Alexi?y, Ignaty Loyo?la, archpriest Avvak?m, Julian?n Tu?vim, Sokolo?v-Mikito?v, Sa?yudis, Ana?dyr, Balashi?ha, Veliky U? Stug, Ki?zhi, Ra?donezh, Mount Narodnaya, Stavropol Territory, Hanno?ver, Che?t'i-Mine?i, Apoka?lipsis, Kali?gula, Molo?x, Karnegi Hall, Comedy? France?z. Metropolitan-Opera, Myanmar?, Nikara?gua, Peru?, Quebec?c, S?days, Massachusetts, Missouri, Foro?s, Sri Lanka?.

In some proper names, a variable accent is allowed: New? tone (but traditionally: Newton?n ), Re?mbrandt (but traditionally: Rembra?ndt ), Li?ncoln (but traditionally: Linko?flax ), De?vid Ko?pperfield (but traditionally: Davi?d Copperfly?ice ).

Note. In cases where one proper name refers to two (or more) persons, objects, concepts, it is necessary to clarify the specific meaning of this word and, using encyclopedic dictionaries, find out the correct stress. For example, Washington George, first President of the United States but traditionally Washington- the capital of the USA, Macbe?t - a character in Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name, but in the title of Leskov's story "Lady Ma?kbet Mtsensk district".

§ 241. Stress in certain grammatical forms

The mobility of Russian stress, that is, its transfer from one syllable to another in various grammatical forms of a single phonetic word, causes a number of difficulties in the pronunciation of these forms.

1. Shifting emphasis to prepositions on, for, under, by, from, without possible if there are no words explaining it in the sentence after the noun:

1) in combination with a preposition behind

"on the other side, behind" , eg: atgo for? river, for mountain; pawn for? cheek, for an ear; lay your hands on? back, for head;

"during" do for? year for? day, for night, for winter to pay for? year for? day etc.;

2) in combination with a preposition on (with accusative case) meaning:

"in the direction, on top of smth" , eg: fall (sit down, lie down) on? floor, climb on? mountain, something got on? hand, on nose, load on? back, put something on? head, on legs, on hands;

"indication of the point of contact with the support" , eg: lie down on back, fall on? back, on hands on? head, stand on? legs, on hands on? head;

"within the specified period" (with units of time), for example: stock up (stretch, enough) for? year, on day, on night, on winter, take a loan for? year etc.;

"indication of the measure of difference" , eg: on? a year older, on? the day before, on head up etc.;

3) in combination with a preposition on (with dative case) - with the meaning of this preposition "on the surface, within" (about movement), for example: walk on? semi, by field, by yard, walk around? forest, fly through? the sky, swim across? sea, crumble over? semi, by forest.

With other meanings of these prepositions, stress transfer may not occur, for example:

a) to take something for a mountain, for a river, for a leg, for winter, he is valued for his head, for his hands, a reward for his head, I fear for his hair, for head, for the legs;

b) pay attention to the hands, to the legs, to the nose, to the floor, to the day, despite the night, to the winter, the land tax;

in) longing for the sea, for the sky, judging by the yard?, for the forest, everyone got the field.

Stress transfer usually does not occur, if in a phrase a noun is followed by a word or words explaining it (subordinate to it or connected with it by a coordinating link), for example:

a) across the Ural River, for a year and two months, for a year of hard work, for a day of his duty, holding on to the hand of a comrade, took hold of his father's shoulders;

b) on Mount Yaman-Tau, put a load on the back of a porter, put a hat on the head of a neighbor, older by a year and two months;

in) around the yard? hotels, on the snow and ice of the Gulf of Finland, on the Laptev Sea.

2. Stress in the forms of adjectives.

1) the stress goes to the ending in the short form of the feminine: loud, loud?, loud, loud, loud, louder; to? long, long?, to? long, to? lies, more; bad? th, bad?, bad? ho, bad? hi; heavy, heavy?, heavy, heavy; right(no full form) right?, right? in, right? you;

2) the stress passes to the ending in the short form of the feminine gender and to the suffix of the comparative degree: glorious, glorious, glorious, glorious, glorious, glorious, glorious; whole, whole, whole, whole, whole, whole, whole; satisfying, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying; fast, fast, fast?, fast, fast, fast; young, young, young, young, young, young, young;

3) the stress moves to the ending in the short form of the feminine gender and plural (as an equal option), as well as to the suffix of the comparative degree: poor, poor, poor?, poor, poor, poor? pale, pale, pale?, pale, pale, pale?, paler; important, important, important, important, important, important, important; true, true, true, true, true, true, true; free(free) , free, free?, free, free?, free? e, slim, slim, slim?, slim, slim?, slim? e;

4) movable stress accompanied by alternation yo and e: distant, far, far?, far? and far, far? and far, yes? more; cheap, cheap, cheap?, cheap, cheap, cheap? tough, tough, tough?, tough, tough, tougher; easy, easy, easy?, easy?, easy?, lighter; dark, dark, dark?, dark?, dark?, dark?e; clear, clear, clear? and clear, clear, clear, clear .

3. Difficulties in placing stress in verb forms(indefinite form, personal forms, participles, participles):

1) verbs ending in - ing with indefinite stress on the last syllable: bombarded, bombarded, bombarded; engraving, engraving, engraved; make-up, make-up, make-up; reward, reward, reward; to form, form, form, formed; costumed, costumed, armored(armor), armored, armored; bathroom; corrugated, corrugated, corrugated; grouping, grouping, grouped; sealing;

2) root verbs call for: called?, called? lo, called?, called? but, called; called? l, called?, called? lo, called? called, called, called, called, called, called, called, called, called, called;

3) verbs with a root rub: rubbed, rubbed, rubbed, rubbed? and admissible rubbed, rubbed ; the same stress pattern in verb forms wipe, wipe ;

4) verbs lock up, unlock: for? per, locked?, for? perlo, for? locked, for? first, locked? in and admissible for?pershi, locked?locked, locked?locked, locked?, locked?locked, locked?locked; o?tper, unlocked?, o?tperlo, o?tperli, o?tpershiy, unlocked? and admissible open?, open, open, open, open, open, open . The same stress pattern for the verb die , except for the form dead , where the stress falls on the root vowel;

5) verbs remove, borrow, understand, accept, undertake, take away, take over and verb to begin : with took off, took off?, took off? lo, took off, took off? busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy; similar stress pattern in verb forms to accept and undertake; understand, understood, understood?, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood?, understood, understood; take away, o? took away and admissible took away? l, took away?, about? took away and admissible taken away? lo, oh? taken away and admissible taken away, taken away, taken away? in, taken away, taken away, taken away ?, taken away, taken away; take over, take over and admissible adopted? l, adopted?, adopted and admissible adopted? lo, adopted and admissible adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted? in, adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted ?, adopted, adopted; start;

6) verbs depart, arrive: ubu? du, ubu? desh, ubu? ; the same stress pattern in verb forms arrive ;

7) verbs with a root to give (you?give, publish, transmit, sell, surrender ); in verb you?give in all forms, the stress falls on the prefix; publish, publish, publish, publish, publish, publish, publish, publish, publish, publish, publish , and? issued, and? issued, published? and admissible and?building, and? building, and? building ; similar stress pattern in verb forms sell ; Phand over, hand over, hand over, hand over, hand over, hand over, hand over and admissible handed over? l, handed over?, handed over and admissible handed over, handed over and admissible handed over, handed over, handed over? to, handed over, handed over, handed over? and admissible handed over, handed over, handed over; give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up and admissible gave up .

PREPARATION OF THE TEXT FOR AUDIO

§ 242. Pausing

The study of the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation, the analysis of "difficult cases" of placing stress in words and grammatical forms, an attentive, thoughtful attitude to the sounding side of speech are necessary prerequisites for independent work over the improvement of the culture of oral speech. But the acquired orthoepic information only partially ensures the successful preparation of a public speech, the ability to pronounce (or read) a complete voluminous text of a message, report, speech, report, etc. Suggested below guidelines can be taken into account in the process of preliminary work of the speaker on the text of the speech.

1. Pausing- the division of a sounding phrase into smaller speech segments (speech measures, or syntagmas) is one of the most important features of sounding speech. Another feature is the presence of pauses that naturally occur at the boundaries of speech measures and individual phrases.

speech beat, or syntagma, is the minimum content unit. The sentence in sounding speech is perceived by the listener and translated from one language to another in separate speech measures. Different division of the phrase into speech measures can interpret the meaning of the sentence in different ways, for example: "Execution cannot be pardoned" , in which two pause options are possible: 1) Execute / cannot be pardoned ; 2) You can not execute / pardon . Or: 1) Need to study / work / and rest ; 2) We must learn to work / and rest .

2. Correct pausing, i.e., the correct division of the text into phonetic phrases, and phrases into speech measures, is the first stage in preparing the text for voicing. Although the sound segment between pauses (syntagma) can be of various lengths, its average length is usually seven syllables. But the speech tact (syntagma) has a relatively complete meaning and a certain syntactic design. For example: On the banks of the Moskva River, / opposite the Southern Port of the capital, / a modern residential area has grown. / Pauses divide this simple sentence into separate phrases. Another example: In order to divide speech into measures, / stops are needed, / or, in other words, / logical pauses. This complex sentence is divided into simple ones (pause after the word so you ), simple - for phrases. Thus, thoughtful pausing helps the logical analysis of individual sentences, complex syntactic wholes (see Ch. XLIX), the entire completed text.

3. In Russian, orientation to punctuation marks can serve as the basis of the correct pausing of the text. So, in a simple sentence with separate participial, adverbial, comparative phrases, introductory and interstitial sentences, appeals, punctuation marks that highlight these syntactic constructions are signals for a pause. For example: On the southwestern outskirts of the US capital / - Washington, / where Highway No. 95, / leading south from the city, / crosses the muddy Potomac River on two bridges, / opposite Arlington Cemetery, / there is a building of grayish reinforced concrete. / /

Note. A pause may be absent with isolated single introductory words and single gerunds: The adoption of a new law is, of course, necessary; When you leave, turn off the light.

4. Pausing in cases where there are no punctuation marks:

1) between the subject group and the predicate group: A road trip across America/is like a trip across the ocean// (I. Ilf, E. Petrov);

2) after circumstantial words, usually with the meaning of place, time, reason, and also after additions at the beginning of the sentence: On one of the autumn evenings of 1969 / in the editorial office of the newspaper Pravda / about “One-story America” a conversation turned at a meeting of young satirists / /(Shatunovsky, Strelnikov);

3) before the union and , if with three or more homogeneous members it combines the last two: Occasionally / we met farms scattered throughout the steppe-prairie, / with the obligatory red barn, / silo tower /and a mighty hundred-year-old tree in front of the porch of the house (Shatunovsky, Strelnikov).

5. Psychological pause arises in addition to the logical and is possible when the speaker wants to highlight a word in particular, to draw the attention of listeners to it. In the second case, we can talk about the ability to "keep a pause", which is owned by actors and experienced speakers.

Below is the text prepared for the speech with preliminary markup of pauses. red oblique lines(/) (in texts a continuous oblique line) indicate obligatory pauses, blue oblique lines (¦ ) (dashed line in texts) - possible, optional.

For Vysotsky¦ there are no forbidden topics, / he fearlessly, / with defiant courage / wrote and sang about everything / that worried him. / But it was that freedom / which is provided morally, / by an accurate attitude to the subject¦ or phenomenon. / Vysotsky ¦ not just fixes, / transmits, / reflects the drama of life. / He is dramatic himself, / by the nature of his subjectivity, / individuality, / talent. / / Everything / that he did, / and everything that he succeeded, /- this is from restlessness, / from a feeling of anxiety that did not leave him.//

Dramatic, / in the words of A. S. Pushkin, / is connected with “passions¦ and outpourings of the human soul”. / In full accordance¦ with this precise observation! / Vysotsky¦ at the very time / when half-whisper dominated, / on the one hand , / and pop noise / - on the other hand, / began to speak and sing in an “open voice”, / passionately, / angrily, / sometimes turning into a cry. / / So, / as people sing at home, / in a free, / relaxed , / environment not constrained by strict rules. / /(V. Tolstykh, In the mirror of creativity).

§ 243. Intonation of the text

The expressive sound of the text is facilitated not only by the correct pausing, but also by the correct, natural intonation that meets the requirements of the traditionally established literary norm.

There are two main types of intonation in Russian: ascending(with rising tone) and descending(with decreasing tone). Rising intonation can also be called the intonation of incompleteness, and descending- intonation of completeness.

A special rise in tone, accompanied by an increase in word stress, a greater intensity of the stressed syllable, is called logical stress. It is used to make sense of a word or phrase in a sentence. There is a certain pattern between the ways of intonation and punctuation marks, on the one hand, and the semantic relationships in the sentence, on the other.

1. Falling intonation(decrease in tone), conditionally indicated in the texts by an icon (in the examples it is highlighted bold italic

1) point: Moscow. 7 October. Today, the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts opened an exhibition dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of Marina Tsvetaeva;

2) ellipsis(if it denotes the completion of a thought): "Petersburg is taken Finns... Kolchak took Syzran. Tsaritsyn…” (Bunin);

3) comma in non-union and compound sentences with enumerative relations between parts: “In July evenings and nights, the quail no longer screams and corostels, nightingales do not sing in forest ravines, does not smell flowers. day longing forgotten, everything is forgiven, and the steppe easily inhales the wide breastfeeding…» (Chekhov);

4) semicolon(the pause between parts is longer than with a comma);

5) colon in a simple sentence: The company needs workers: locksmiths, turners, millers; in complex sentence: And my request is next: take care of our language, our beautiful Russian language… (Turgenev).

2. Rising intonation(raising the tone), conventionally indicated in the texts by the icon (in the examples it is highlighted bold), is required when the following punctuation marks are used:

1) exclamation point: ask attention! Please stop debate!;

2) question mark: What is the peculiarity of the modern stage of development societies?;

3) comma:

a) in a series of homogeneous members of a simple sentence, connected by connecting unions and yes (in meaning "and" ), or without conjunctions, is accompanied by the intonation of the same type of enumeration: The team crept up business, cheerful, vigorous. Everyone works with full bestowal and enthusiasm;

b) in a simple or complex sentence in the presence of adversatives ( but, but, however ), separating ( either ... or, then ... that, not that ... not that etc.), double comparative ( like…and; although ... but; if not...then etc.) of unions is accompanied by a heterogeneous, non-uniform intonation: the ascending intonation is replaced by a descending one: Mal spool, Yes roads. Is not the street, a avenue. In economics, there is no other choice: either force, or ruble ;

c) in a simple sentence with isolated members of the sentence: Editorial thanks readerswho sent their wishes. AT decisionadopted on meetingsummed up the results of the work. Despite the difficult weather conditions, the transcontinental flight took place;

d) in a simple sentence in the presence of introductory words and appeals, if they are allocated in a speech tact, i.e. accompanied by a pause: Reportedly printing, the visit of the head of government may not take place;

e) in a complex sentence on the border of its simple sentences: to me seemsthat the style of translation will not be violated if we transmit foreign proverbs with moderation and tact Russiansthat correspond to them in content and style, especially in cases where the literal translation is clumsy and wordy(K. Chukovsky);

4) a dash in a simple sentence: A life live- not field go. On right- sea, left- mountains; in a complex sentence: Century live- century learn .

3. Rising intonation(raising the tone) is required in all cases when a pause at the boundaries of speech measures (syntagmas) occurs in the absence of a punctuation mark:

Oftenwe can still hear statement:/market in its purest form/no longer exists nowhere, / especially in industrial countries.// cruel delusion.// If not say/illiteracy¦and blindness.// Yes, / the state today / tries to correct everywhere market.// Yes,/monopolies/plan their production,/ are fighting for control of market.// But over market,/ but not over anything others!// …Nothing useful from Togo, / what's the story economyaccumulated for century, / the modern economy has not lost. // AND, add,/- can not lose.// For the market and social division labor/not detachable.// And the deeper this division labor, /themes wider, /more branched¦ market.// AND means,/ and its tools:/money,/price,/taxes,/credit/currency well.// (N. Shmelev, Either strength or the ruble).

4. Logical stress(a special rise in tone, accompanied by the intensity of the sound of the stressed syllable, in texts) conventionally indicated by the icon (") (in the examples, the accented letter is highlighted bold), is allowed only when the semantic selection of the word and phrase in the phrase:

1) within one simple sentence, it is recommended to resort to logical stress no more than once, thus emphasizing new, important information for this statement, since the meaning of the message as a whole changes from a change in the place of logical stress. For example, a proposal Pushkin was born in Moscow can have three options for setting a logical stress, depending on what you need to pay attention to: a) PatShkin was born in Moscow; b) Pushkin familyandwas in Moscow; in) Pushkin was born in Moscowe.

The presence of more than one logical stress in a simple sentence is allowed in a series of homogeneous members, if you need to emphasize each of them: Pushkin's draft is a precious documentent, in which all stadii of the creative process, all of its lasteconsistency, all gradualenia;

2) in a connected text, logical stress helps the speaker to clearly distinguish the beginning of a new thought, emphasizes the auxiliary words that form the compositional beginnings: firstly, secondly, thus, so, of course, naturally, after all etc.;

3) stands out accented word class, the logical underlining of which is typical for public speaking, since with the help of them the speaker expresses his attitude to the subject of speech: very, completely, absolutely, not at all, again, again, earlier, always, annually, usually; is, no, it is impossible, it is possible, it should not be; important, little, much etc.;

4) stand out "reference points" text - words that name the object of speech; first of all, these are terms, as well as words that clarify the meaning of terms, explaining them.

Below is an excerpt from the article by N. Shmelev, divided into speech measures, containing intonational markings and logical stress with a focus on the pronunciation norms of public speech.

Legend:

(/) a continuous oblique line indicates mandatory pauses, (¦ ) a broken oblique line - for possible, optional pauses;

- falling intonation(decrease in tone);

- rising intonation(raising tone);

(") - logical stress (a special rise in tone, accompanied by the intensity of the sound of the stressed syllable, in texts).

You can learn about what orthoepy is from dictionaries and reference books of the literary language. All languages ​​of the world have certain lexical norms, which are an example of the correct use of words.

Science of orthoepy

Orthoepy studies the laws and rules of pronunciation of words. It is very similar to spelling, which considers the laws of the correct spelling of words. The term "orthoepy" includes two Greek words: orthos - "right", "correctly", "straight" (direction) and epos - "speech", "talk". Therefore, the question of what orthoepy is can be answered directly translated from Greek: correct pronunciation.

Orthoepy rules

Various deviations from the norms of use and pronunciation interfere with communication, distract the listener from the meaning of the spoken speech and significantly complicate the assimilation of the spoken text. Adhering to the rules of pronunciation of words is just as important as adhering to the rules of spelling. The correct pronunciation of a particular lexical item spelling will tell. The rules of this science allow you to determine how to pronounce a particular word, and the scope of its lexical application. Indeed, in a world where oral speech is a means of wide communication, it must be impeccable, from the point of view of the rules of orthoepy.

History of Russian orthoepy

Russian orthoepy developed already in the middle of the 17th century. Then the rules for the pronunciation of certain words were approved, the norms for constructing phrases and sentences were laid down. Moscow became the center of the new literary language. On the basis of northern Russian dialects and southern dialects, Moscow pronunciation was formed, which was taken as the basis of the lexical norm. The science of how to pronounce this or that word correctly went from Moscow to the remote hinterlands of Russia.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the new capital of Russia, the city of St. Petersburg, became the center of the political and cultural life of the country. Gradually, the norms of pronunciation changed, among the intelligentsia, a clear, letter-by-letter pronunciation of words became the rule. But among the general population, the Moscow pronunciation continued to be considered the norm.

Orthoepy studies such norms of pronunciation of the Russian language as stress, the norm of pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, melody and intonation of colloquial speech.

stress

About what orthoepy is, you can consider the rules for placing stress in Russian words. The question is not as simple as it might seem. In French speech, in the vast majority of cases, the stress is placed on the last syllable. In Russian, the stress is mobile, it can fall on an arbitrary syllable, change its location depending on the gender and case of the given word. For example, a city, but a city, a train, but a train, will be accepted, but accepted.

Sometimes incorrect pronunciation is so ingrained in colloquial speech that it takes a lot of effort to eradicate the error. For example, everywhere we hear calls instead of calls, contract, instead of the correct contract. The orthoepy of the word insists on: catalog, obituary, quarter instead of well-established incorrect versions of these words.

Sometimes surprise helps to correct the stress. For example, in the mid-1950s, the use of the word “youth” instead of the correct “youth” was widespread. The widely popular song "Hymn of Democratic Youth" helped to correct the mistake. The song was created by the composer Novikov to the verses of the poet Oshanin. In the chorus of the anthem were the words: "Young people sing this song." The widespread “youth” did not fit into either the rhythm or the text of this piece of music, so the incorrect pronunciation of the popular word was replaced by the correct one.

Transcription

The spoken word can be recorded using transcription. This is the name of the recording of audible words and sounds of the language. In transcription, along with ordinary letters, special ones are also used, for example, the letter [æ] denotes an open stressed vowel, something between “a” and “e”. This sound is not used in Russian speech, but is often found in the study of languages ​​of the Germanic branch.

Currently, special dictionaries will help to put the correct stress in the word.

Pronunciation of individual sounds

To explain what orthoepy is, you can use the example of the pronunciation of vowels in the words of the Russian language. For example, the norm in Russian is reduction - the weakening of the articulation of vowels in some words. For example, in the word "box" only the third sound "o" is clearly heard, and the first one is pronounced muffled. The result is a sound that resembles both [o] and [a] at the same time.

If an unstressed [o] is at the beginning of a word, it is always pronounced as [a]. For example, in the words “fire”, “window”, “glasses”, [a] is clearly worn out in the first case. The stressed [o] does not change its meaning: the words "cloud", "island", "very" are pronounced with a pronounced [o] at the beginning.

The sound of some consonants

The existing rules of orthoepy say that voiced consonants at the end of spoken words sound like paired deaf ones. For example, the word "oak" is pronounced as [dup], "eye" - [voice], "tooth" - [zup], and so on.

The consonant phrases "zzh" and "zhzh" are pronounced as a double soft [zhzh], for example, we write I'm coming, we pronounce [I'm coming], rattling - [rattling], and so on.

The exact pronunciation of a particular word can be found in special spelling dictionaries.

For example, Avanesov presented a fairly serious work on orthoepy. The deeply elaborated editions of linguists Reznichenko, Abramov and others are interesting. Orthoepic dictionaries can be easily found on the Internet or in special sections of libraries.

1. The sound [g] before vowels, voiced consonants and sonorants is pronounced as a voiced consonant explosive: mountain, where, hail; before deaf consonants and at the end of the word - like [k]: burned, burned [Λzh "oks" b], [Λzhok]. The pronunciation of a fricative sound ([ã]) is possible in limited cases, and with fluctuations: in the forms of the words God, Lord; in interjections yeah, wow, ege, gop, goplya.

2. In place of the letters zh, sh, ts, solid sounds [zh], [sh], [c] are pronounced in all positions: parachute, brochure - [prΛshut], [brΛshur]; end, end, calico - [end], [end], [s "and bm]. but in the word of the jury, the pronunciation [zh "yar" and] is preferable.

3. In place of the letters h, u, soft consonants are always pronounced (h], (uTj or (shh]: hour, choh, chur - [h "as", [h "oh], [h "ur]; grove, Shchors , twitter, pike - [ro "b], [" ors], [ "fuck" bt], [ "uk".

4. In place of the letter and after w, sh and c, the sound [s] is pronounced: lived, awl, cycle - [zhyl], [shyl], [cycle].

5. In place of the letter c in the affixes -sya - -s, a soft sound [s] is pronounced: I'm afraid, I was afraid, I was afraid - [bΛjus "], [bΛjals" b], [bΛjal's"].

6. In place of all consonants (except w, w, c) before [e], the corresponding soft consonants are pronounced (sat, sang, chalk, affairs, tel, etc.) [s "el", [p "el] , [m "el], [d" el], [t" el], etc. (for the pronunciation of these combinations in foreign words, see § 83).

Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms

1. Unstressed ending of the nominative case singular. h. masculine adjective names -th, -th are pronounced according to the spelling: [kind], [proud], [pr "ezhn" and], [lower" and].

The pronunciation of the ending -y after [k], [g], [x] is preferable in a soft version: [n" claim "and], [wretched" and], [quiet" and].

2. In place of the letter g at the end of the genitive singular. h. masculine and neuter adjectives -th and -its, a fairly distinct sound [v] is pronounced with the corresponding reduction of vowels: sharp, this, the one whom - [island], [ety], [tΛvo], [kΛvo]. The sound [v] is pronounced in place of the letter g in the words: today, today, total.

3. The unstressed endings of adjectives -th, -th coincide during pronunciation: kind, kind [good b - good b].

4. The ending (unstressed) of adjectives -th - -th is pronounced in accordance with the spelling: warm, summer - [t "oplu y], [l "et" n "y].

5. Endings -s, -s in the nominative case pl. hours of adjectives, pronouns, participles are pronounced as [yi], [ii]: good, blue - [kind], [sin "ii].

6. In place of the unstressed ending of the 3rd person pl. part of the verbs of the 2nd conjugation -at - -yat is pronounced [bt]: breathe, walk - [breathe], [hod" yt].

7. Forms of verbs on - nod, - givat, - hivat are pronounced with soft [k], [g], [x]: [jump" ivl], [shudder" ivl], [rΛzmah" ivl].

Features of the pronunciation of foreign words

Many words of foreign origin are firmly assimilated by the Russian literary language, have entered the national language and are pronounced in accordance with existing orthoepic norms. A less significant part of foreign words relating to various fields of science and technology, culture and art, to the field of politics (also foreign proper names), when pronounced, deviate from generally accepted norms. In addition, in some cases there is a double pronunciation of foreign words (cf .: s [o] no - s [a] no, b [o] le-ro - b [a] lero, etc.). Pronunciation options with [o] in such cases characterize the pronunciation as deliberately bookish. Such pronunciation does not meet the norms accepted in the literary language.

Deviations from the norms in the pronunciation of foreign words cover a limited layer of vocabulary and come down mainly to the following:

1. In unstressed syllables (pre-stressed and stressed) in foreign words, in place of the letter o, the sound [o] is pronounced: [o] tel, b [o] a, p [o] et, k [o] mmunique, m [o] derat [o], sake [o], ha [o] s, kaka [ï], p [o] etessa; in proper names: B[o]dler, V[o]lter, Z[o]la, T[o]rez, Zh[o]res, etc.

2. Before e in foreign words, predominantly dental consonants [t], [d], [h], [s], and [n], [p] are pronounced firmly: hotel, atelier, parterre, subway, interview; model, neckline, code; highway, meringue, morse; scarf, pince-nez; Sorrento; Thorez, Jaures, also Flaubert, Chopin.

3. In unstressed syllables of foreign words with a hard consonant before [e], in place of the letter e, the vowel [e] is pronounced: at [e] lie, at [e] ism, mod [e] lier, etc. In place of the letter e after and in the following foreign words, [e] is pronounced: di [e] ta, pi [e] tizm, pi [e] tet, di [e] z.

4. In place of the letter e at the beginning of the word and after vowels, [e] is pronounced: [e] ko, [e] pos, po [e] t, po [e] tessa, po [e] tic.

GRAPHICS AND SPELLING

Russian graphics

The concept of graphics

Writing arose as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. A letter associated with the use of graphic signs (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. Modern writing at various stages of development had different forms and types and correlated differently with the sound language.

Descriptive writing originated in the form of pictography, i.e. drawing letters. Pictography did not have an alphabet and thus was not connected with the spoken language. A remnant of pictography in everyday life are, for example, signboards of trade and craft establishments in the form of drawings that have survived in some places. The lack of connection with oral speech makes it possible to read, for example, a sign-drawing "Boot" in different ways: "Shoemaker", "A shoemaker lives here", "Shoe repair", etc.

At the next stage in the development of writing - in ideography - the drawing is preserved, but first appears in a conditional meaning, and then turns into a symbolic sign - a hieroglyph. With such a letter, the inscriptions do not convey words in their grammatical and phonetic design, but the meanings of words (cf .: road signs as ideograms: zigzag - “turn”, cross - “crossroads”, exclamation mark - “be careful!”, etc. ).

Attempts to simplify ideographic writing led to the emergence of phonography, a specific feature of which is the connection between inscriptions and oral speech. With this method of writing, oral speech is analyzed, divided into sounds and sound complexes, denoted by means of certain symbolic signs - letters.

A letter that conveys the sound side of the language with conditional outlines - letters, is called sound or speech.

Russian writing is sound. However, it contains elements of both pictography and ideography. The pictographic elements of our letter include, for example, mathematical signs (+, - , ×, : , Δ, etc.). Among the written characters that are used as hieroglyphs are numbers, spaces between words, quotation marks, capital letters after a dot and in proper names, a question mark.

The written form of the modern Russian literary language does not simply convey the sound side of the language through letters, but is associated in this transmission with the concept of correctness, the norms of the literary language. In other words, the written form of speech is determined both by the graphic system of the language and by the spelling system.

Graphics represents the inventory that is used when writing (letters of the alphabet, symbols: arrows, dots, brackets, etc. punctuation marks). Spelling regulates the means of graphics in the written transmission of speech.

Graphics is an applied field of knowledge about the language, which establishes the composition of the styles used in the letter, and the sound meanings of the letters.

The graphics of the Russian language and the graphics of the Latin language are different, although they have a significant number of letters that are outwardly similar. Outwardly similar letters in Russian and Latin graphics denote different sounds. Therefore, words written in Russian are read differently in Latin: the Russian words turnip, syrup, dew can be read in Latin as foam, coupon, bye.

Composition of the Russian alphabet

A complete list of letters used in written speech and arranged in a generally accepted order is called the alphabet. The sequence of letters in the alphabet is completely arbitrary, but practically justified when using alphabetical lists, dictionaries.

There are 33 letters in the modern Russian alphabet, and each of them has two varieties - uppercase and lowercase; in addition, the letters have some differences in printed and handwritten form.